EDUCATION SERIES

nokia n85

2009-12-05T05:43:00.000-08:00

Nokia N85

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Phone Nokia N85 Manufacturer Nokia Status Available Available in India Yes Price (Indian Rupees) Avg Current Market Price:Rs. 20000
Last Updated On:November 11 2009
Place : Chennai Delhi Kolkata Mumbai Price (USD) $411.52 approx Description The N85 is an innovative mobile broadband phone with plenty of connectivity options, a really powerful camera and a 2.6 inch Active Matrix OLED display

Highlights

- 2 Way Slide
- Accelerometer
- Assisted GPS
- 5 Megapixel Camera With Automatic Geo Tagging.FM Radio

Nokia N85 Specifications

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	Network
Technology / Frequency Bands	GSM : 850/900/1800/1900 MHz UMTS : 900/2100 MHz
	Battery
Type	Li - Ion
Capacity	1200 mAh
Standby	360 hours
Talktime	410 mins
	Built
Dimensions	103x50x16 mm
Weight	128 g
Form Factor	Slide
	Display
Size	240 x 320 pixels
Type	color : OLED
Colors	16000000 colors
Secondary Display	no
	Camera / Imaging / Video
Camera	Yes Inbuilt 5.0 Megapixel
Resolution	2592x1944 pixels
Zoom	yes 20x
Flash	no
Video Recording	yes Resolution :640x480
Video Formats
Secondary Camera	no
	Connectivity
Bluetooth	Yes
Irda	No
Wlan/Wi-fi	Yes Modes: 802.11b / 802.11g
Pc Sync	no
SyncML	no
USB	yes
GPS	yes
UnPnP	yes
	Data
Data Modes	GPRS / EDGE (EGPRS) / WCDMA (UMTS) / HSCSD / HSDPA 3.6
GPRS	Yes
EDGE	Yes
3G	Yes
HSDPA	yes
Internet Browsing	WAP , S60 OSS Browser
	Media
Audio Playback	Yes
Audio Formats	MP3
Video Playback	Yes
Video Formats	RealVideo / MPEG-4 / 3GPP H.263
Ringtones
FM Radio	Yes
Streaming	yes
	Memory
Inbuilt	74 MB
Memory Slot	Yes microSD/TransFlash Hot Swappable
PhoneBook	, Photo Caller
	Messaging
SMS	Yes
MMS	Yes
Email	Yes
Predictive Text Input	T9
	Calling / Voice
	Software
Operating System	Symbian / S60 Symbian OS 9.3
Platform	S60 3rd Edition, Feature Pack 2
Java	yes MIDP 2.1 CLDC 1.1
Flash Lite	yes 3.0
Games	yes

Features

SMS Yes
MMS Yes
Email Yes
Bluetooth Yes
Infrared No
Wi-fi Yes
3G Yes
Camera Yes
Video Capture Yes
FM Radio Yes
Audio Player Yes
Video Player Yes
Memory Slot Yes
Java Yes
SmartPhone Yes

2009-12-05T05:23:00.000-08:00

Nokia N95 8GB

Phone Nokia N95 8GB Manufacturer Nokia Status Available Available in India Yes Price (Indian Rupees) Avg Current Market Price:Rs. 22700
Last Updated On:November 11 2009
Place : Chennai Delhi Kolkata Mumbai Price (USD) $467.08 approx Description An upgraded version of the N95 features a larger screen ,GSM/EDGE support, 3G and HSDPA (2100 MHz), a 5-megapixel camera, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, GPS, TV-out and internal memory of 8 GB

Highlights

- Large Screen
- 5 MP Camera
- Dual Slider
- 8GB Memory

Nokia N95 8GB Specifications

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	Network
Technology / Frequency Bands	GSM : 850/900/1800/1900 MHz UMTS : 2100 MHz
	Battery
Type	Li - Ion
Capacity	1200 mAh
Standby	280 hours UMTS: 280 hours
Talktime	300 mins UMTS: 210 mins
	Built
Dimensions	99x53x21 mm Volume : 96 cc
Weight	128 g
Antenna Type	Internal
Form Factor	Slide
	Display
Size	240 x 320 pixels
Type	color : TFT
Colors	16000000 colors
Secondary Display	no
	Camera / Imaging / Video
Camera	Yes Inbuilt 5.0 Megapixel
Resolution	2592x1944 pixels
Image Formats	JPEG
Resolutions Supported	2592x1944 pixels
Zoom	yes
Flash	yes
Video Recording	yes Resolution :640x480 30 fps
Video Formats	MPEG-4
Video Resolutions Supported	640x480 pixels
Video Out	yes
Secondary Camera	yes
	Secondary Camera
Resolution	352x288 pixels
Image Formats	JPEG
Flash	no
Video Recording	yes 0 fps
Video Formats
	Connectivity
Bluetooth	Yes , version 2.0 profiles: A2DP Advanced Audio Distribution
Irda	Yes
Wlan/Wi-fi	Yes Modes: 802.11b / 802.11g
Pc Sync	yes
SyncML	yes
USB	yes
GPS	yes
UnPnP	yes
	Data
Data Modes	GPRS / EDGE (EGPRS) / WCDMA (UMTS) / HSDPA 1.8
GPRS	Yes
EDGE	Yes
3G	Yes
HSDPA	yes
Internet Browsing	WAP 2.0 , S60 OSS Browser
	Media
Audio Playback	Yes
Audio Formats	AAC / MP3 / WMA / WAV / Real Audio
Video Playback	Yes
Video Formats	RealVideo / MPEG-4 / 3GPP H.263 / H.264/AVC
Ringtones	MP3
FM Radio	Yes Visual Radio
Streaming	yes
3.5mm Headphone Jack	yes
	Memory
Inbuilt	8 GB
Memory Slot	No
USB Mass Storage	yes
PhoneBook	Capacity : Based on Internal Memory , Photo Caller
	Messaging
SMS	Yes
EMS	yes
MMS	Yes
Email	Yes Protocols : IMAP/POP3/SMTP Attachments :attachment support for images, videos, music and d
Predictive Text Input	T9
Instant Messaging	yes
	Calling / Voice
Voice Recording	yes
Voice Dial	yes
Voice Commands	yes
Speaker	yes
VOIP	yes
Push2Talk	yes
	Software
Operating System	Symbian / S60 Symbian OS 9.2
Platform	S60 3rd Edition, Feature Pack 1
Java	yes MIDP 2.0 CLDC 1.1
Flash Lite	yes Flash Lite 2.0
Games	yes

Features

SMS Yes
MMS Yes
Email Yes
Bluetooth Yes
Infrared Yes
Wi-fi Yes
3G Yes
Camera Yes
Video Capture Yes
FM Radio Yes
Audio Player Yes
Video Player Yes
Memory Slot No
Java Yes
SmartPhone Yes

nokia n96

2009-12-05T05:21:00.000-08:00

Nokia N96

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This phone is likely to be announced at 3GSM Barcelona Feb 08

Phone Nokia N96 Manufacturer Nokia Status Available Available in India Yes Price (Indian Rupees) Avg Current Market Price:Rs. 29775
Last Updated On:November 11 2009
Place : Chennai Delhi Kolkata Mumbai Price (USD) $612.65 approx Description Series 60 3rd Edition Feature Pack 2, Flashlite 3.0 - Play Youtube videos inside browser ,16 GB Internal Memory ,Quadband 5 megapixel camera with Carl Zeiss lens with VGA video recording at 30 FPS, Dual LED flash which can also be used when video recording

Highlights

- Camera
- Video Recording
- Wifi
- Gps
- Flash Lite 3
- DVB-H(Mobile Tv)
- Radio
- Two Flashlights
- Digital Video Stabilization

Nokia N96 Specifications

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	Network
Technology / Frequency Bands	GSM : 850/900/1800/1900 MHz UMTS : 2100 MHz
	Battery
Type	Li - Ion
Capacity	950 mAh
Standby	220 hours
Talktime	220 mins
	Built
Dimensions	103x55x18 mm
Weight	125 g
Antenna Type	Internal
Form Factor	Slide
Colors	Black
Multiple Languages	yes
	Display
Size	240 x 320 pixels
Type	color : TFT
Colors	16000000 colors
Secondary Display	no
	Camera / Imaging / Video
Camera	Yes Inbuilt 5.0 Megapixel
Resolution	2592x1944 pixels
Image Formats	EXIF / JPEG
Zoom	yes
Flash	yes
Video Recording	yes Resolution :640x480 30 fps
Video Formats	MPEG-4 / H.264/AVC
Video Out	yes
Features	Digital video stabilization
Secondary Camera	yes
	Secondary Camera
Resolution	640x480 pixels
Image Formats	JPEG
Flash	no
	Connectivity
Bluetooth	Yes , version 2.0 + EDR profiles: A2DP Advanced Audio Distribution
Irda	Yes
Wlan/Wi-fi	Yes Modes: 802.11b / 802.11g
Pc Sync	no
SyncML	yes
USB	yes
GPS	yes
	Data
Data Modes	GPRS / EDGE (EGPRS) / WCDMA (UMTS)
GPRS	Yes
EDGE	Yes
3G	Yes
HSDPA	yes
Internet Browsing	WAP 2.0
	Media
Audio Playback	Yes
Audio Formats	AAC / MP3 / WMA / Real Audio
Video Playback	Yes
Video Formats	MPEG-4 / 3GPP H.263 / H.264/AVC
Ringtones	Polyphonic, MP3
FM Radio	Yes Visual Radio
Streaming	yes
Mobile TV	yes
DVB	yes
	Memory
Inbuilt	16 GB
Memory Slot	Yes microSD/TransFlash Hot Swappable
USB Mass Storage	yes
PhoneBook	, Photo Caller
	Messaging
SMS	Yes
EMS	yes
MMS	Yes
Email	Yes Protocols : SMTP, IMAP4 and POP3
Predictive Text Input	T9
Templates	yes
Instant Messaging	yes
	Calling / Voice
Voice Recording	yes
Voice Dial	yes
Voice Commands	yes
Video Calling	yes
Vibration	yes
Speaker	yes
VOIP	yes
Push2Talk	yes
	Software
Operating System	Symbian / S60 Symbian OS 9.2
Platform	S60 3rd Edition, Feature Pack 1
Java	yes MIDP 2.0 CLDC 1.1
Flash Lite	yes FlashLite 3.0 with Video Streaming
Games	yes

Features

SMS Yes
MMS Yes
Email Yes
Bluetooth Yes
Infrared Yes
Wi-fi Yes
3G Yes
Camera Yes
Video Capture Yes
FM Radio Yes
Audio Player Yes
Video Player Yes
Memory Slot Yes
Java Yes
SmartPhone Yes

nokia n97

2009-12-05T05:20:00.000-08:00

Nokia N97

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Phone Nokia N97 Manufacturer Nokia Status Available Available in India Yes Price (Indian Rupees) Avg Current Market Price:Rs. 30200
Last Updated On:November 11 2009
Place : Chennai Delhi Kolkata Mumbai Price (USD) $621.4 approx Description This is the first Nseries Touchscreen handset for 2009 and is touted as an iPhone 3G Competitor. Its aimed at internet savvy users and sports a full keyboard in addition to touchscreen.Rich in Multimedia and Connectivity features

Highlights

- TFT Touchscreen
- 5 MP Camera With DUAL LED Flash
- Music Playback
- Widgets
- 32 GB Onboard Memory
- 3.5mm Headphone Jack
- A-GPS
- DVD Quality Video Capture

Nokia N97 Specifications

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	Network
Technology / Frequency Bands	GSM : 850/900/1800/1900 MHz UMTS : 900/1900/2100 MHz
	Battery
Type	Li - Ion
Capacity	1500 mAh
Standby	432 hours UMTS: 408 hours
Talktime	570 mins UMTS: 360 mins
	Built
Dimensions	117.2x55.3x15.9 mm
Weight	150 g
Antenna Type	Internal
Form Factor	Unique
Colors	White, Black
Dedicated Keys	Camera , Volume
QWERTY	yes
Touch Screen	yes
Multiple Languages	yes
	Display
Size	360x640 pixels
Type	color : TFT
Colors	16000000 colors
Secondary Display	no
	Camera / Imaging / Video
Camera	Yes Inbuilt 5 MP
Resolution	2584x1938 pixels
Image Formats	EXIF / JPEG
Zoom	yes 4x
Flash	yes
Video Recording	yes Resolution :640x480 30 fps
Video Formats	MPEG-4 / 3GPP H.263
Video Out	yes
Features	Auto Exposure, Auto Focus, Carl Zeiss Optics, Exposure Compensation, Full Screen Viewfinder, Self Timer, Sequence Mode,Video Stabilization
Secondary Camera	yes
	Secondary Camera
Resolution	640x480 pixels
Image Formats	JPEG
Flash	no
Video Recording	yes Resolution :176x144 15 fps
Video Formats	3GPP H.263
	Connectivity
Bluetooth	Yes , version 2.0 + EDR
Irda	No
Wlan/Wi-fi	Yes Modes: 802.11b / 802.11g
Pc Sync	yes
SyncML	yes
USB	yes
GPS	yes
UnPnP	yes
	Data
Data Modes	GPRS / EDGE (EGPRS) / WCDMA (UMTS) / HSCSD / HSDPA 3.6
GPRS	Yes
EDGE	Yes
3G	Yes
HSDPA	yes
Internet Browsing	WAP 2.0 , S60 OSS Browser , HTML
	Media
Audio Playback	Yes
Audio Formats	AAC / AAC+ / eAAC+ / MP3 / MP4 / M4A / WMA / AMR / WAV / XMF / WB-AMR / NB-AMR / Real Audio / Midi Tones / True Tones
Video Playback	Yes
Video Formats	RealVideo / MPEG-4 / 3GPP H.263 / H.264/AVC
Ringtones	Polyphonic, MP3
FM Radio	Yes
Streaming	yes
3.5mm Headphone Jack	yes
	Memory
Inbuilt	32 GB
Memory Slot	Yes microSD/TransFlash Hot Swappable Expandable Upto : 16GB
USB Mass Storage	yes
PhoneBook	Capacity : Based on Internal Memory , Photo Caller
	Messaging
SMS	Yes
EMS	yes
MMS	Yes
Email	Yes Protocols : IMAP/POP3/SMTP Attachments :Excel, PDF, Powerpoint, Word, Zip
Predictive Text Input	T9
Instant Messaging	yes
	Calling / Voice
Voice Recording	yes
Voice Dial	yes
Voice Commands	yes
Video Calling	yes
Vibration	yes
Speaker	yes
	Software
Operating System	Symbian / S60 Symbian OS 9.3
Platform	S60 5th Edition
Java	yes MIDP 2.1
Flash Lite	yes FlashLite 3.0
Games	yes Use the touch UI to play games,Guitar Rock Tour game included

Features

SMS Yes
MMS Yes
Email Yes
Bluetooth Yes
Infrared No
Wi-fi Yes
3G Yes
Camera Yes
Video Capture Yes
FM Radio Yes
Audio Player Yes
Video Player Yes
Memory Slot Yes
Java Yes
SmartPhone Yes
Touchscreen Yes

nokia e90

2009-12-05T05:13:00.001-08:00

Nokia E90 Communicator

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Phone Nokia E90 Communicator Manufacturer Nokia Status Available Available in India Yes Price (Indian Rupees) Avg Current Market Price:Rs. 32825
Last Updated On:November 11 2009
Place : Chennai Delhi Kolkata Mumbai Price (USD) $675.41 approx Description A Nokia communicator after a long time.Fully loaded with all possible features including a 3.2 Mega Pixel Camera , Wi-Fi , Bluetooth , GPS

Nokia E90 Communicator Specifications

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	Network
Technology / Frequency Bands	GSM : 850/900/1800/1900 MHz UMTS : 2100 MHz
	Battery
Type	Li - Ion
Capacity	1500 mAh
Standby	330 hours
Talktime	300 mins
	Built
Dimensions	132x57x20 mm
Weight	210 g
Antenna Type	Internal
Form Factor	bar
Colors	Red, Mocha
QWERTY	yes
Multiple Languages	yes
	Display
Size	800x352 pixels
Type	color : TFT
Colors	16000000 colors
Secondary Display	yes
	Camera / Imaging / Video
Camera	Yes Inbuilt 3.0 Megapixel
Resolution	2048x1536 pixels
Image Formats	EXIF / JPEG
Resolutions Supported	2048x1536 pixels
Zoom	no 20x
Flash	no
Video Recording	yes Resolution :640x480 30 fps
Video Formats	MPEG-4 / 3GPP H.263
Video Resolutions Supported	640x480 pixels
Features	Auto Focus, Flash, Red-Eye Reduction, Self Timer
Secondary Camera	yes
	Secondary Camera
Resolution	320x240 pixels
Image Formats	EXIF / JPEG
Flash	no
Video Recording	yes Resolution :176x144 15 fps
Video Formats	3GPP H.263
	Connectivity
Bluetooth	Yes , version 2.0 + EDR
Irda	Yes
Wlan/Wi-fi	Yes Modes: 802.11b / 802.11g Supporting: WPA, WPA-Enterprise, WPA2 (AES/TKIP)
Pc Sync	yes
SyncML	yes
USB	yes
GPS	yes
	Data
Data Modes	GPRS / EDGE (EGPRS) / WCDMA (UMTS) / HSCSD / HSDPA 1.8
GPRS	Yes
EDGE	Yes
3G	Yes
HSDPA	yes
Internet Browsing	WAP , S60 OSS Browser
	Media
Audio Playback	Yes
Audio Formats	AAC / AAC+ / eAAC+ / MP3 / MP4 / WMA / WAV / Real Audio
Video Playback	Yes
Video Formats	RealVideo / MPEG-4 / 3GPP H.263 / H.264/AVC
Ringtones
FM Radio	Yes Visual Radio
Streaming	yes
3.5mm Headphone Jack	yes
	Memory
Inbuilt	128 MB
Memory Slot	Yes microSD/TransFlash Hot Swappable Expandable Upto : 2 GB
USB Mass Storage	yes
PhoneBook	, Photo Caller
	Messaging
SMS	Yes
MMS	Yes
Email	Yes Protocols : IMAP4 / POP3 / SMTP
Predictive Text Input	T9
Templates	yes
Instant Messaging	yes
	Calling / Voice
Voice Recording	yes
Voice Dial	yes
Voice Commands	yes
Video Calling	yes
Vibration	yes
Speaker	yes
VOIP	yes
Push2Talk	yes
	Software
Operating System	Symbian / S60 Symbian OS 9.2
Platform	S60 3rd Edition, Feature Pack 1
Java	yes MIDP 2.0 CLDC 1.1
Flash Lite	yes Flash Lite 2.0
Games	yes

Features

SMS Yes
MMS Yes
Email Yes
Bluetooth Yes
Infrared Yes
Wi-fi Yes
3G Yes
Camera Yes
Video Capture Yes
FM Radio Yes
Audio Player Yes
Video Player Yes
Memory Slot Yes
Java Yes
SmartPhone Yes

Government of India

2009-12-05T00:59:00.000-08:00

Government of India:

The Government of India (Hindi: Bharat Sarkar), officially referred to as the Union Government, and commonly as Central Government, was established by the Constitution of India, and is the governing authority of a federal union of 28 states and 7 union territories, collectively called the Republic of India. The basic civil and criminal laws governing the citizens of India are set down in major parliamentary legislation, such as the Indian Penal Code, Criminal Procedure Code, etc.

The federal (union) and individual state governments consist of executive, legislative and judicial branches. The legal system as applicable to the federal and individual state governments is based on the English Common and Statutory Law. India accepts compulsory International Court of Justice jurisdiction with several reservations.

Indian Government - Legislative Branch:

India's bicameral parliament (also known as the Sansad) consists of the Rajya Sabha (Council of States) and the Lok Sabha (House of the People). The Union Council of Ministers is responsible to the Lok Sabha. In India's parliamentary system, the executive is nominally subordinate to the legislature. There are 543 members in the Lok Sabha that are elected from the various states on the basis of proportional representation. There are 2 Anglo-Indian members nominated by the President. The Rajya Sabha has 250 members.

Indian Government - Executive Branch:

The Executive arm consists of the President, Vice-President, the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers. Any minister holding a portfolio must be a member of either house of parliament.

Indian Government - President of India: The government exercises its broad administrative powers in the name of the President of India, who is the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces, the Head of State and chief guardian of the Constitution of the Republic.

The President's true role is mostly ceremonial. He is the Supreme Commander of the nation's armed forces, has the authority to dissolve Parliament and call fresh elections, declare a state of emergency, and dismiss governments in the states, but all upon the counsel of the Prime Minister and the elected government.

Historically, the President of the Republic has been a person revered by the people for his position above ordinary politics. The President and Vice President are elected indirectly for 5-year terms by a special electoral college, composed of delegates from the federal Parliament and state legislatures.

Indian Government - Union Cabinet: Real national executive power is centered in the Council of Ministers, the Union Cabinet, led by the Prime Minister of India, the Head of Government. The President appoints the Prime Minister, who is the designated leader of the political party or coalition commanding parliamentary majority. All Central Government decisions are nominally taken in the name of the President.

The Ministers may be of 3 types - Cabinet Minister, Minister of State (Independent Charge) and Minister of State, in order of seniority. Cabinet Ministers and Ministers of State with independent charge may usually attend Cabinet meetings.

Indian Government - Judicial Branch:

India's independent judicial system began under the British, and its concepts and procedures resemble those of Anglo-Saxon countries. The Supreme Court of India consists of a Chief Justice and 25 associate justices, all appointed by the President on the advice of the Chief Justice of India. In the 1960s, India moved away from using juries for most trials, finding them to be corrupt and ineffective, instead almost all trials are conducted by judges.

Unlike its US counterpart, the Indian justice system consists of a unitary system at both state and federal level. The judiciary consists of the Supreme Court of India, High Courts at the state level, and District and Session Courts at the district level.

Indian Government

Jurisdiction and Seats of High Courts

2009-12-05T00:58:00.002-08:00

Jurisdiction and Seats of High Courts

Status:

Each State has a High Court; it is the highest judicial organ of the State.

However, there can be a common High Court like Punjab, Haryana & Union Territory of Chandigarh.

Presently there are 21 High Courts in India.

Consists of Chief Justice & other such judges as appointed by the President.

The Constitution, unlike in the case of the Supreme Court, does not fix any maximum number of judges for a High Court. (Allahabad High Court has 37 judges while J & K High Court has only 5).

A judge of a High Court can be transferred to another High Court without his consent by the President. In this the Chief Justice of India is also consulted. The opinion provided by him shall have primacy and is binding on the President.

Appointment of Judges:

The appointment of Chief Justice is made after consultation with the Chief Justice of Supreme Court & the Governor of the State by the President. In case of appointment of a judge, the chief justice of the High Court concerned is also consulted in addition to chief Justice of Supreme Court & Governor of the State concerned.

Qualifications:

Must be a citizen of India
Should have been an advocate of a High Court or of two such Courts in succession for atleast 10 yrs; or should have held judicial office in India for a period of atleast 10yrs.

Term:

A judge of High Court continues his office till 62 yrs of age. Term can be cut short due to resignation or removal by the President.

Removal:

The President can remove a judge of High Court only if the Parliament passes the resolution by a 2/3 majority of its members present & voting in each house.
The conduct of the judges of the High Court cannot be discussed in Parliament, except on a motion for the removal of a judge.

Jurisdiction Seats High Courts:

Name	Estd.in the year	Territorial Jurisdiction	Seat
Allahabad	1866	Uttar Pradesh	Allahabad (Bench at Lucknow)
Andhra Pradesh	1954	Andhra Pradesh	Hyderabad
Mumbai	1862	Maharashtra, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Goa, Daman and Diu	Mumbai (Bench at Nagpur, Panaji and Aurangabad)
Kolkata	1862	West Bengal and Andaman and Nicobar	Kolkata (Circuit Bench at Port Blair)
Delhi	1966	Delhi	Delhi
Guwahati	1948	Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Tripura, Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh	Guwahati (Bench at Kohima and Circuit Benches at Imphal, Agartala & Shillong)
Gujarat	1960	Gujarat	Ahmedabad
Himachal Pradesh	1971	Himachal Pradesh	Shimla
J & K	1957	J & K	Srinagar and Jammu
Karnataka	1884	Karnataka	Bangalore
Kerala	1956	Kerala and Lakshadweep	Ernakulam
Madhya Pradesh	1956	Madhya Pradesh	Jabalpur (Benches at Gwalior and Indore)
Chennai	1862	Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry	Chennai
Orissa	1948	Orissa	Cuttack
Patna	1916	Bihar	Patna
Punjab & Haryana	1966	Punjab, Haryana and Chandigarh	Chandigarh
Rajasthan	1950	Rajasthan	Jodhpur (Bench at Jaipur)
Sikkim	1975	Sikkim	Gangtok
Bilaspur	2000	Chhattisgarh	Bilaspur
Nainital	2000	Uttaranchal	Nainital
Ranchi	2000	Jharkhand	Ranchi

Indian Government - High Courts

Parliament of India

2009-12-05T00:58:00.001-08:00

Parliament of India

Parliament of India - LOK SABHA:

Maximum strength - 550 + 2 nominated members. (530 - States/ 20 - Union Territories)

Present strength of Lok Sabha - 545.

The Eighty Fourth Amendment, 2001, extended freeze on Lok Sabha and State Assembly seats till 2026.

The normal tenure of the Lok Sabha is five years, but it may be dissolved earlier by the President. The life of the Lok Sabha can be extended by the Parliament beyond the five year term, when a proclamation of emergency under Article 352 is in force. But the Parliament cannot extend the normal life of the Lok Sabha for more than one year at a time (no limit on the number of times in the Constitution).

The Candidate must be: (a) Citizen of India. (b) Atleast 25 yrs of age. (c ) Mustn't hold any office of profit. (d) No unsound mind/ insolvent. (e) Has registered as voter in any Parliamentary Constituency.

Oath of MPs is conducted by the Speaker. Can resign, by writing to Speaker.

Presiding officer is Speaker (In his absence Deputy Speaker). The members among themselves elect him.

The Speaker continues in office even after the dissolution of the Lok Sabha till a newly elected Lok Sabha meets.

Usually the Speaker, after his election cuts-off all connection with his party & acts in an impartial manner. He does not vote in the first instance, but exercises his casting vote only to remove a deadlock.

Charges his salary from Consolidated Fund of India.

Speaker sends his resignation to deputy Speaker.

The Majority of the total membership can remove Speaker after giving a 14 days notice. (During this time, he doesn't preside over the meetings). After his removal, continues in office till his successor takes charge.

Parliament of India - RAJYA SABHA

Maximum Strength - 250 {Out of these, President nominates 12 amongst persons having special knowledge or practical experience in the fields of literature, science, art and social service}.

Presently, the Parliament, by law, has provided for 233 seats for the States and the Union Territories. The total membership of Rajya Sabha is thus 245.

All the States and the Union Territories of Delhi and Pondicherry are represented in the Rajya Sabha.

Representatives of the State are elected by members of State legislative assemblies on the basis of proportional representation through a single transferable vote.

There are no seats reserved for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in Rajya Sabha.

The candidate must be: (a) Citizen of India. (b) 30 yrs of age. (c ) Be a parliamentary elector in the State in which he is seeking election. (d) Others as prescribed by parliament from time-to-time.

The Rajya Sabha MPs are elected for a term of 6 years, as 1/3rd members retire every 2 years.

Vice-President is the ex-officio chairman of Rajya Sabha. He presides over the proceedings of the Rajya Sabha as long as he does not act as the President of India during a vacancy in the office of the President of India.

Also a deputy chairman is elected from its members.

In Rajya Sabha any bill can originate, apart from money bill (including budget).

Indian Government - Parliament of India

Supreme Court of India

2009-12-05T00:57:00.002-08:00

Supreme Court of India

1	Status	Stands at the apex of the judicial system of India. Consists of Chief Justice & 25 other judges.
2	Appointment	The senior most judge of the Supreme Court is appointed as the Chief Justice of India. Other judges are appointed by the President after consultation with such judges of the Supreme Court and of the High Court as the President may deem necessary.
3	Qualification	Citizen of India Have been a judge of High Court for 5 yrs or An advocate of High Court for 10 yrs minimum or In President's view, a distinguished jurist of the country.
4	Term & Salary	The Chief Justice & other judges hold office till 65 yrs of age. Can give resignation to President. Can be removed by the Parliament. After retirement, a judge of Supreme Court cannot plead or act before any authority. Salary: Chief Justice - 33,000/- per month, Other Judges - 30,000/- per month
5	Removal of Judges	A motion seeking the removal of the judge can be preferred before either House of the Parliament. The resolution should be supported by a majority of total membership of both houses & by 2/3 majority of the members present & voting.
6	Jurisdiction of The Supreme Court	Original Jurisdiction: The Supreme Court settles all disputes between Centre - State, State - State, etc. Writ Jurisdiction: Every individual has the right to move the Supreme Court directly by appropriate proceedings for the enforcement of his Fundamental Rights. Advisory Jurisdiction: If the President seeks the advice of Supreme Court, it is duty bound to give its opinion. (Its opinion isn't a binding of President). Revisory Jurisdiction: The Supreme Court under Article 137 is empowered to review any judgement or order made by it with a view to removing any mistake or error that might have crept in the judgement or order. It is a court of record as its decisions are of evidentiary value & cannot be questioned in any court. The Supreme Court also enjoys the power of Judicial review as it can ensure that the laws passed by legislature and orders issued by the executive do not contravene any provision of the Constitution. The Supreme Court decides disputes regarding the election of the President and the Vice President. The Supreme Court recommends the removal of members of UPSC to the President.

Indian Government - Supreme Court of India

Prime Ministers of India

2009-12-05T00:57:00.001-08:00

Prime Ministers of India

Jawahar Lal Nehru	15.08.1947	27.05.1964
Gulzari Lal Nanda	27.05.1964	09.06.1964
Lal Bahadur Shastri	09.06.1964	11.01.1966
Gulzari Lal Nanda	11.01.1966	24.01.1966
Indira Gandhi	24.01.1966	24.03.1977
Morarji Desai	24.03.1977	28.07.1979
Charan Singh	28.07.1979	14.01.1980
Indira Gandhi	14.01.1980	31.10.1984
Rajiv Gandhi	31.10.1984	01.12.1989
V.P.Singh	02.12.1989	10.11.1990
Chandra Shekhar	10.11.1990	21.06.1991
P.V.Narsimha Rao	21.06.1991	16.05.1996
Atal Bihari Vajpayee	16.05.1996	01.06.1996
H.D. Deve Gowda	01.06.1996	21.04.1997
I.K.Gujral	21.04.1997	18.03.1998
Atal Bihari Vajpayee	19.03.1998	12.10.1999
Atal Bihari Vajpayee	13.10.1999	21.05.2004
Dr.Manmohan Singh	22.05.2004	Till Date

Indian Government - Prime Ministers of India

Presidents of India

2009-12-05T00:56:00.000-08:00

Presidents of India

1	Dr. Rajendra Prasad	26.01.1950	13.05.1962
2	Dr. S. Radhakrishnan	13.05.1962	13.05.1967
3	Dr. Zakir Hussain	13.05.1967	03.05.1969
4	V.V.Giri (Vice President)#	03.05.1969	20.07.1969
5	Justice M. Hidayatullah*#	20.07.1969	24.08.1969
6	V.V. Giri	24.08.1969	24.08.1974
7	F. Ali Ahmed	24.08.1974	11.02.1977
8	B.D. Jatti#	11.02.1977	25.07.1977
9	N. Sanjiva Reddy	25.07.1977	25.07.1982
10	Gaini Jail Singh	25.07.1982	25.07.1987
11	R. Venkataraman	25.07.1987	25.071992
12	Dr.S.D. Sharma	25.07.1992	25.07.1997
13	K.R. Narayanan	25.07.1997	25.07.2002
14	Dr.A.P. J. Abdul Kalam	25.07.2002	Till Date

Indian Government - Presidents of India

Cultural India

2009-12-05T00:55:00.004-08:00

Cultural India:

The term Culture refers to a state of intellectual development or manners. The Indian culture is unique and varied. The culture of India is one of the oldest and unique. In India, there is amazing cultural diversity throughout the country. The South, North, and Northeast have their own distinct cultures and almost every state has carved out its own cultural niche.

There is hardly any culture in the world that is as varied and unique as India. India is a vast country, having variety of geographical features and climatic conditions. India is home to some of the most ancient civilizations, including four major world religions, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism.

Indian culture is rich and diverse and as a result unique in its very own way. Our manners, way of communicating with one another, etc are one of the important components of our culture. Even though we have accepted modern means of living, improved our lifestyle, our values and beliefs still remain unchanged. A person can change his way of clothing, way of eating and living but the rich values in a person always remains unchanged because they are deeply rooted within our hearts, mind, body and soul which we receive from our culture.

Indian culture treats guests as god and serves them and takes care of them as if they are a part and parcel of the family itself. Even though we don’t have anything to eat, the guests are never left hungry and are always looked after by the members of the family. Elders and the respect for elders is a major component in Indian culture. Elders are the driving force for any family and hence the love and respect for elders comes from within and is not artificial. An individual takes blessings from his elders by touching their feet. Elders drill and pass on the Indian culture within us as we grow.

"Respect one another" is another lesson that is taught from the books of Indian culture. All people are alike and respecting one another is ones duty.

Helpful nature is another striking feature in our Indian culture. Right from our early days of childhood we are taught to help one another in need of help and distress. If not monetary then at least in kind or non-monetary ways.

Indian culture tells us to multiply and distribute joy and happiness and share sadness and pain. It tells us that by all this we can develop co-operation and better living amongst ourselves and subsequently make this world a better place to live in.

A combination of these factors has resulted into an exclusive culture- Indian culture. Indian culture is a composite mixture of varying styles and influences. In the matter of cuisine, for instance, the North and the South are totally different. Festivals in India are characterized by color, gaiety, enthusiasm, prayers and rituals. In the realm of music, there are varieties of folk, popular, pop, and classical music. The classical tradition of music in India includes the Carnatic and the Hindustani music.

India has a rich and unique cultural heritage, and has managed to preserve its established traditions throughout history whilst absorbing customs, traditions and ideas from both invaders and immigrants. Many cultural practices, languages, customs and monuments are examples of this co-mingling over centuries. Famous monuments, such as the Taj Mahal and other examples of Islamic-inspired architecture have been inherited from the Mughal dynasty. These are the result of a syncretic tradition that combined elements from all parts of the country.

Indian music is represented in a wide variety of forms. The two main forms of classical music are Carnatic from South India, and Hindustani from North India, each of which has several popular sub classes. Popular forms of music also prevail, the most notable being Filmi music. In addition to this are the diverse traditions of folk music from different parts of the country. Many classical dance forms exist, including the Bharatanatyam, Kathakali, Kathak, Kuchipudi, Odissi, and Manipuri. They often have a narrative form and are usually infused with devotional and spiritual elements.

The earliest literary traditions in India were mostly oral, and were later transcribed. Most of these are represented by sacred works like the Vedas and the epics of the Mahabharata and Ramayana. Sangam literature from Tamil Nadu represents some of India's oldest traditions. There have been many notable modern Indian writers, both in Indian languages and in English. Millions of ancient handwritten manuscripts have been identified and classified. India's only Nobel laureate in literature was the Bengali writer Rabindranath Tagore. India is the third largest newspaper market in Asia with an estimated circulation of at least 66 million copies daily in 2003.

The nation also produces the world's second largest number of motion pictures every year. The most recognizable face is that of cinema production based in Mumbai, which produces mainly commercial Hindi films, often referred to as "Bollywood". There are also strong cinema industries based on the Bengali, Malayalam, Kannada, Tamil and Telugu languages.

Religious practices of various faiths are an integral part of everyday life in society. Religion in India is a very public affair, with many practices imbued with pomp and vitality accompanying their underlying spiritual qualities. Education is highly regarded by members of every socio-economic stratum. Traditional Indian family values are highly respected, and considered sacred, although urban families have grown to prefer a nuclear family system, owing to the socio-economic constraints imposed by the traditional joint family system.

The cuisine of India is diverse, as ingredients, spices and cooking methods vary from region to region. Rice and wheat are the staple foods in the country. The country is notable for its wide variety of vegetarian and non-vegetarian cuisine. Spicy food and sweets are popular in India. Traditional dress in India greatly varies across the regions in its colours and styles, and depend on various factors, including climate. Popular styles of dress include the traditional sari for women and the traditional dhoti for men.

India's national sport is field hockey, although cricket is now the de facto national game. In some states, particularly in the northeast, football (soccer) is the most popular sport and is widely watched. In recent times, tennis has gained popularity in India. Chess is also gaining popularity with the rise of the number of recognised grandmasters. The most commonly held view is that chess originated in India. Traditional indigenous sports include kabaddi, Kho Kho and gilli-danda, which are played in most parts of the country.

India is also known as a land of festivals. A melting pot of many religions, India has a rich diversity of festivals, many of which are celebrated irrespective of caste and creed. The most widely known and popular celebrations include the Hindu festivals of Diwali, Holi, Pongal and Dussehra and the Muslim celebration of Eid. A number of festivals are common to most parts of India; however, they may be called by different names in the various parts of the country or may be celebrated in a different fashion and style.

Indian Culture

India Politics

2009-12-05T00:55:00.003-08:00

India Politics:

For most of its independent history, India has been ruled by the Indian National Congress. The party enjoyed a parliamentary majority barring two brief periods during the 1970s and late 1980s. This rule was interrupted between 1977 to 1980, when the Janata Party coalition won the election owing to public discontent with the "Emergency" declared by the then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi. The Janata Dal won elections in 1989, but its government managed to hold on to power for only two years.

Between 1996 and 1998, there was a period of political flux with the government being formed first by the right-of-centre, nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) followed by a left-leaning United Front coalition. In 1998, the BJP formed the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) with smaller regional parties, and became the first non-Congress and coalition government to complete a full five-year term. The 2004 Indian elections saw the left-leaning Congress party winning the largest number of seats to form a government by leading the United Progressive Alliance, and supported by communist parties and those opposed to the BJP.

Since independence, India has maintained cordial relationships with most nations. It took a lead in the 1950s in advocating the independence of European colonies in Africa and Asia. During the Cold War, India tried to maintain its neutrality and was one of the founding members of the Non-Aligned Movement. After the Sino-Indian War and the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, India's relationship with the Soviet Union warmed at the expense of ties with the United States and continued to remain so until the end of the Cold War. India has consistently refused to sign the CTBT and the NPT to maintain sovereignty over its nuclear program despite criticism and military sanctions. Recent overtures by the Indian government have strengthened India's relations with United States, China and Pakistan.

In the economic sphere, India has close relationships with other developing nations of South America, Asia and Africa. In recent years, India has played an influential role in the SAARC. India has been a long time supporter of the United Nations, with over 55,000 Indian military and police personnel having served in 35 UN peace keeping operations over four continents [5]. Since the 1990s, India has been considered a great or major power on the global stage, meaning it has considerable influence on international affairs.

India Politics

India Demographics

2009-12-05T00:55:00.001-08:00

India Demographics:

India is the second-most populous country in the world with an estimated 1.1 billion people in 2006.[9] Language, caste and religion are determinants of social and political organisation within its diverse population. Although 81.5% of the people are Hindus, India is also home to the second-largest population of Muslims in the world (12.2%), after Indonesia.

Other religious groups include Sikhs (2%), Christians (2.33%), Buddhists (0.76%), Jains (0.40%), Jews, Zoroastrians, Ahmadis, and Bahá'ís.[9] The national average literacy rate is 64.4%(with males-75.6% and females-54.2%). The state of Kerala leads the country with a literacy rate of approximately 94%.

Unlike the USA, UK, and Australian Censuses, the national Census of India does not recognize racial or ethnic groups within India.[10]

India's biggest metropolitan agglomerations are Mumbai (formerly Bombay), Delhi, Kolkata (formerly Calcutta), Chennai (formerly Madras), Bangalore and Hyderabad. The national sex ratio is 933 females per 1,000 males and median age is 24.66. India's birth rate is 22.32 births per 1,000.[9] The total fertility rate (TFR) for India is above the world average, however the growth rate is showing signs of decrease in South India.

India is home to two major linguistic families: Indo-Aryan (spoken by about 74% of the population) and Dravidian (spoken by about 24%). Other languages spoken in India come from the Austro-Asiatic and Tibeto-Burman linguistic families. The Indian constitution recognises 23 official languages.[11] Hindi and English are used by the Union Government of India for official purposes, wherein Hindi has a de jure priority. Sanskrit and Tamil enjoy classical language status in India [12]. The number of dialects in India is as high as 1,652.

India Demographics

India Geography

2009-12-05T00:54:00.003-08:00

India Geography:

The territory of India constitutes a major portion of the Indian subcontinent, situated on the Indian Plate, the northerly portion of the Indo-Australian Plate, in southern Asia. India's northern and northeastern states are partially situated in the Himalayan Mountain Range. The rest of northern, central and eastern India consists of the fertile Indo-Gangetic plain. In the west, bordering southeast Pakistan, lies the Thar Desert. The southern Indian Peninsula is almost entirely composed of the Deccan plateau, which is flanked by two hilly coastal ranges, the Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats.

India is home to several major rivers, including the Ganga, Brahmaputra, Yamuna, Godavari, Kaveri, Narmada, and Krishna. India has three archipelagos – Lakshadweep off the southwest coast, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands-volcanic island chain to the southeast, and the Sunderbans in the Gangetic delta in West Bengal.

Climate in India varies from tropical in the south to more temperate in the Himalayan north, with elevated regions in the north receiving sustained snowfall in winters. India's climate is strongly influenced by the Himalayas and the Thar Desert. The Himalayas, along with the Hindu Kush mountains in Pakistan, provide a barrier to the cold winds from Central Asia. This keeps most of the Indian subcontinent warmer than most locations in similar latitudes. The Thar Desert is responsible for attracting the moisture laden southwest monsoon winds that provide most of India's rainfall between June and September.

India Geography

India Economy

2009-12-05T00:54:00.001-08:00

India Economy:

The economy of India is the fourth largest in the world as measured by purchasing power parity (PPP), with a GDP of US $3.63 trillion. When measured in USD exchange-rate terms, it is the twelfth largest in the world, with a GDP of $785.47 billion or Rs 35,34,615 crore in 2005, as calculated by the World Bank.[6] India is the second fastest growing major economy in the world, with a GDP growth rate of 9.1%, as of the first quarter of 2006. Wealth distribution in India, a developing country, is fairly uneven, with the top 10% of income groups earning 33% of all income.[7] India's per capita income (PPP) of US$ 3,400 [8] is ranked 122nd in the world.

For most of its independent history, India adhered to a quasi-socialist approach, with strict government control over private sector participation, foreign trade, and foreign direct investment. Starting from 1991, India has gradually opened up its markets through economic reforms by reducing government controls on foreign trade and investment. Privatisation of public-owned industries and some sectors to private and foreign players has continued amid political debate.

India has a labour force of 496.4 million of which 60% is employed in agriculture or agriculture-related industries which contributes to only about 22% of the GDP, 17% in mainstream industry and 23% in service industries. India's agricultural produce includes rice, wheat, oilseed, cotton, jute, tea, sugarcane, potatoes. Major industries include textiles, chemicals, food processing, steel, transportation equipment, cement, mining, petroleum and machinery.[8]

India's large English speaking middle-class has contributed to the country's growth in Business Process Outsourcing (BPO). It is becoming a major base for US tech companies for future targeted research & development, including the likes of Google, IBM, and Microsoft. All this has helped the services sector to increase its share of the economy to approximately 50%.

India is also a major exporter of financial, research and technology services. India's most important trading partners are the United States, China, UK, Singapore, Hong Kong, the United Arab Emirates, Switzerland and Belgium.

India Economy

India History

2009-12-05T00:51:00.002-08:00

India History:

India's extraordinary history is intimately tied to its geography. A meeting ground between the East and the West, it has always been an invader's paradise, while at the same time its natural isolation and magnetic religions allowed it to adapt to and absorb many of the peoples who penetrated its mountain passes. No matter how many Persians, Greeks, Chinese nomads, Arabs, Portuguese, British and other raiders had their way with the land, local Hindu kingdoms invariably survived their depradations, living out their own sagas of conquest and collapse. All the while, these local dynasties built upon the roots of a culture well established since the time of the first invaders, the Aryans. In short, India has always been simply too big, too complicated, and too culturally subtle to let any one empire dominate it for long.

True to the haphazard ambiance of the country, the discovery of India's most ancient civilization literally happened by accident. British engineers in the mid-1800's, busy constructing a railway line between Karachi and Punjab, found ancient, kiln-baked bricks along the path of the track. This discovery was treated at the time as little more than a curiosity, but archaeologists later revisited the site in the 1920's and determined that the bricks were over 5000 years old. Soon afterward, two important cities were discovered: Harappa on the Ravi river, and Mohenjodaro on the Indus.

The civilization that laid the bricks, one of the world's oldest, was known as the Indus. They had a written language and were highly sophisticated. Dating back to 3000 BC, they originated in the south and moved north, building complex, mathematically-planned cities. Some of these towns were almost three miles in diameter and contained as many as 30,000 residents. These ancient municipalities had granaries, citadels, and even household toilets. In Mohenjodaro, a mile-long canal connected the city to the sea, and trading ships sailed as far as Mesopotamia. At its height, the Indus civilization extended over half a million square miles across the Indus river valley, and though it existed at the same time as the ancient civilizations of Egypt and Sumer, it far outlasted them.

The first group to invade India were the Aryans, who came out of the north in about 1500 BC. The Aryans brought with them strong cultural traditions that, miraculously, still remain in force today. They spoke and wrote in a language called Sanskrit, which was later used in the first documentation of the Vedas. Though warriors and conquerors, the Aryans lived alongside Indus, introducing them to the caste system and establishing the basis of the Indian religions. The Aryans inhabited the northern regions for about 700 years, then moved further south and east when they developed iron tools and weapons. They eventually settled the Ganges valley and built large kingdoms throughout much of northern India.

The second great invasion into India occurred around 500 BC, when the Persian kings Cyrus and Darius, pushing their empire eastward, conquered the ever-prized Indus Valley. Compared to the Aryans, the Persian influence was marginal, perhaps because they were only able to occupy the region for a relatively brief period of about 150 years. The Persians were in turn conquered by the Greeks under Alexander the Great, who swept through the country as far as the Beas River, where he defeated king Porus and an army of 200 elephants in 326 BC. The tireless, charismatic conqueror wanted to extend his empire even further eastward, but his own troops (undoubtedly exhausted) refused to continue. Alexander returned home, leaving behind garrisons to keep the trade routes open.

While the Persians and Greeks subdued the Indus Valley and the northwest, Aryan-based kingdoms continued developing in the East. In the 5th century BC, Siddhartha Gautama founded the religion of Buddhism, a profoundly influential work of human thought still espoused by much of the world. As the overextended Hellenistic sphere declined, a king known as Chandragupta swept back through the country from Magadha (Bihar) and conquered his way well into Afghanistan. This was the beginning of one India's greatest dynasties, the Maurya. Under the great king Ashoka (268-31 BC), the Mauryan empire conquered nearly the entire subcontinent, extending itself as far south as Mysore. When Ashoka conquered Orissa, however, his army shed so much blood that the repentant king gave up warfare forever and converted to Buddhism. Proving to be as tireless a missionary as he had been as conqueror, Asoka brought Buddhism to much of central Asia. His rule marked the height of the Maurya empire, and it collapsed only 100 years after his death.

After the demise of the Maurya dynasty, the regions it had conquered fragmented into a mosaic of kingdoms and smaller dynasties. The Greeks returned briefly in 150 BC and conquered the Punjab, and by this time Buddhism was becoming so influential that the Greek king Menander forsook the Hellenistic pantheon and became a Buddhist himself. The local kingdoms enjoyed relative autonomy for the next few hundred years, occasionally fighting (and often losing to) invaders from the north and China, who seemed to come and go like the monsoons. Unlike the Greeks, the Romans never made it to India, preferring to expand west instead.

In AD 319, Chandragupta II founded the Imperial Guptas dynasty, which conquered and consolidated the entire north and extended as far south as the Vindya mountains. When the Guptas diminished, a golden age of six thriving and separate kingdoms ensued, and at this time some of the most incredible temples in India were constructed in Bhubaneshwar, Konarak, and Khahurajo. It was time of relative stability, and cultural developments progressed on all fronts for hundreds of years, until the dawn of the Muslim era.

Arab traders had visited the western coast since 712, but it wasn't until 1001 that the Muslim world began to make itself keenly felt. In that year, Arab armies swept down the Khyber pass and hit like a storm. Led by Mahmud of Ghazi, they raided just about every other year for 26 years straight. They returned home each time, leaving behind them ruined cities, decimated armies, and probably a very edgy native population. Then they more or less vanished behind the mountains again for nearly 150 years, and India once again went on its way.

But the Muslims knew India was still there, waiting with all its riches. They returned in 1192 under Mohammed of Ghor, and this time they meant to stay. Ghor's armies laid waste to the Buddhist temples of Bihar, and by 1202 he had conquered the most powerful Hindu kingdoms along the Ganges. When Ghor died in 1206, one of his generals, Qutb-ud-din, ruled the far north from the Sultanate of Delhi, while the southern majority of India was free from the invaders. Turkish kings ruled the Muslim acquisition until 1397, when the Mongols invaded under Timur Lang (Tamerlane) and ravaged the entire region. One historian wrote that the lightning speed with which Tamerlane's armies struck Delhi was prompted by their desire to escape the stench of rotting corpses they were leaving behind them.

Islamic India fragmented after the brutal devastation Timur Lang left in Delhi, and it was every Muslim strongman for himself. This would change in 1527, however, when the Mughal (Persian for Mongol) monarch Babur came into power. Babur was a complicated, enlightened ruler from Kabul who loved poetry, gardening, and books. He even wrote cultural treatises on the Hindus he conquered, and took notes on local flora and fauna. Afghan princes in India asked for his help in 1526, and he conquered the Punjab and quickly asserted his own claim over them by taking Delhi. This was the foundation of the Mughal dynasty, whose six emperors would comprise most influential of all the Muslim dynasties in India.

Babur died in 1530, leaving behind a harried and ineffective son, Humayun. Humayun's own son, Akbar, however, would be the greatest Mughal ruler of all. Unlike his grandfather, Akbar was more warrior than scholar, and he extended the empire as far south as the Krishna river. Akbar tolerated local religions and married a Hindu princess, establishing a tradition of cultural acceptance that would contribute greatly to the success of the Mughal rule. In 1605, Akbar was succeed by his son Jahangir, who passed the expanding empire along to his own son Shah Jahan in 1627.

Though he spent much of his time subduing Hindu kingdoms to the south, Shah Jahan left behind the colossal monuments of the Mughal empire, including the Taj Majal (his favorite wife's tomb), the Pearl Mosque, the Royal Mosque, and the Red Fort. Jahan's campaigns in the south and his flare for extravagant architecture necessitated increased taxes and distressed his subjects, and under this scenario his son Aurungzebe imprisoned him, seeking power for himself in 1658.

Unlike his predecessors, Aurungzebe wished to eradicate indigenous traditions, and his intolerance prompted fierce local resistance. Though he expanded the empire to include nearly the entire subcontinent, he could never totally subdue the Mahrattas of the Deccan, who resisted him until his death in 1707. Out of the Mahrattas' doggedness arose the legendary figure of Shivagi, a symbol Hindu resistance and nationalism. Aurungzebe's three sons disputed over succession, and the Mughal empire crumbled, just as the Europeans were beginning to flex their own imperialistic muscles.

The Portuguese had traded in Goa as early as 1510, and later founded three other colonies on the west coast in Diu, Bassein, and Mangalore. In 1610, the British chased away a Portuguese naval squadron, and the East India Company created its own outpost at Surat. This small outpost marked the beginning of a remarkable presence that would last over 300 years and eventually dominate the entire subcontinent. Once in India, the British began to compete with the Portuguese, the Dutch, and the French. Through a combination of outright combat and deft alliances with local princes, the East India Company gained control of all European trade in India by 1769.

How a tiny island nation, thousands of miles away, came to administer a huge territory of 300 million people is one of history's great spectacles. A seemingly impossible task, it was done through a highly effective and organized system called the Raj. Treaties and agreements were signed with native princes, and the Company gradually increased its role in local affairs. The Raj helped build infrastructure and trained natives for its own military, though in theory they were for India's own defense. In 1784, after financial scandals in the Company alarmed British politicians, the Crown assumed half-control of the Company, beginning the transfer of power to royal hands.

In 1858, a rumor spread among Hindu soldiers that the British were greasing their bullets with the fat of cows and pigs, the former sacred animals to Hindus and the latter unclean animals to Muslims. A year-long rebellion against the British ensued. Although the Indian Mutiny was unsuccessful, it prompted the British government to seize total control of all British interests in India in 1858, finally establishing a seamless imperialism. Claiming to be only interested in trade, the Raj steadily expanded its influence until the princes ruled in name only.

The Raj's demise was partially a result of its remarkable success. It had gained control of the country by viewing it as a source of profit. Infrastructure had been developed, administration established, and an entire structure of governance erected. India had become a profitable venture, and the British were loath to allow the Indian population any power in a system that they viewed as their own accomplishment. The Indians didn't appreciate this much, and as the 20th century dawned there were increasing movements towards self-rule.

Along with the desire for independence, tensions between Hindus and Muslims had also been developing over the years. The Muslims had always been a minority, and the prospect of an exclusively Hindu government made them wary of independence; they were as inclined to mistrust Hindu rule as they were to resist the Raj. In 1915, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi came onto the scene, calling for unity between the two groups in an astonishing display of leadership that would eventually lead the country to independence.

The profound impact Gandhi had on India and his ability to gain independence through a totally non-violent mass movement made him one of the most remarkable leaders the world has ever known. He led by example, wearing homespun clothes to weaken the British textile industry and orchestrating a march to the sea, where demonstrators proceeded to make their own salt in protest against the British monopoly. Indians gave him the name Mahatma, or Great Soul. The British promised that they would leave India by 1947.

Independence came at great cost. While Gandhi was leading a largely Hindu movement, Mohammed Ali Jinnah was fronting a Muslim one through a group called the Muslim League. Jinnah advocated the division of India into two separate states: Muslim and Hindu, and he was able to achieve his goal. When the British left, they created the separate states of Pakistan and Bangladesh (known at that time as East Pakistan), and violence erupted when stranded Muslims and Hindu minorities in the areas fled in opposite directions. Within a few weeks, half a million people had died in the course of the greatest migration of human beings in the world's history. The aging Gandhi vowed to fast until the violence stopped, which it did when his health was seriously threatened. At the same time, the British returned and helped restore order. Excepting Kashmir, which is still a disputed area (and currently unsafe for tourists), the division reached stability.

India's history since independence has been marked by disunity and intermittent periods of virtual chaos. In 1948, on the eve of independence, Gandhi was assassinated by a Hindu fanatic. His right-hand man, Jawarhalal Nehru, became India's first Prime Minister. Nehru was a successful leader, steering the young nation through a period of peace that was contrasted by the rule of Lal Bahadur Shastri, who fought Pakistan after it invaded two regions of India. Shastri died in 1966 after only 20 months in power, and he was succeeded by Nehru's daughter, Indira Gandhi.

With the name Gandhi (though no relation to Mahatma), Indira was a powerful, unchallenged leader, and opposition remained negligible until she abused her power by trying to suppress the press. When the rising opposition began to threaten her power, she called a state of emergency and continued to reform the nation, actually making some positive economic and political changes despite her questionable tactics. Her most unpopular policy was forced sterilization, and she was eventually defeated at the polls in 1977 by Morarji Desai of the Jenata party. She won back power in '79, however, but was later assassinated in 1984 by a Sikh terrorist. Although India's political climate remains divisive, the country has attained apparent stability in recent years. Today, India seems poised to realize its potential as an international economic power.

India History

Festivals of India - Jainism Festivals

2009-12-05T00:51:00.001-08:00

Festivals of India - Jainism Festivals

Mahavir Jayanti:

Mahavir Jayanti is celebrated as the anniversary of Vardhman Mahavir, the founder of Jain religion. Commemorating his birthday on this day, Mahavir was the most revered religious leader in this century and was perceived as a reformer who vehemently opposed the ritualism and false beliefs.

The twenty-fourth and last Jain Tirthankara, Mahavir was born in 599 BC and lived for 72 years. He was born of Sidhartha, the Raja of Kundalpura, and Queen Trishala, who was also known by the name Priyakarni.

Prince Vardhamana became extremely penitent and resolved to give up everything worldly. He gave up attachment to his parents, friends and relatives. Distributing all his wealth among the poor, he went to the forest and became a monk.

Mahavir practised rigorous austerities, including fasts that lasted many days. He meditated on the pure nature of the Soul. Mahavir lived a life of absolute truthfulness, a life of perfect honesty and a life of absolute chastity.

On the day of Mahavir Jayanthi ( Birth anniversary), many members of the community make offerings of milk, rice, fruit, incense, lamps and water to the tirthankar. Some sections of the community even participate in a grand procession.

Indian Festivals - Jainism Festivals

Festivals of India - Sikh Festivals

2009-12-05T00:50:00.004-08:00

Festivals of India - Sikh Festivals

Guru Nanak Jayanti:

Guru Nanak Dev, the founder of the Sikh faith, was born in the month of Kartik (October/November), and his birthday is known as Guru Nanak Jayanti. He was born in 1469 A.D. at Tolevandi some 30 miles from Lahore. The anniversaries of Sikh Guru's are known as Gurpurabs (festivals) and are celebrated with devotion and dedication.

GurPurabs mark the culmination of Prabhat Pheris, the early morning procession that start from the gurdwaras (Sikh temples) and then go around localities singing 'shabads' (hymns). The celebrations also include the three-day Akhand path, during which the holy book, the Guru Granth Sahib is read continuously, from beginning to end without a break.

On the day of the festival, the Granth Sahib is also carried in a procession on a float, decorated with flowers, throughout a village or city. Five armed guards, who represent the Panj Pyares, head the procession carrying Nishan Sahibs (the Sikh flag). Local bands playing religious music form a special part of the procession.

Free sweets and langar or community lunches are also offered to everyone irrespective of religious faith. Men, women, and children, participate in this karseva as service to the community, cook food and distribute it in the 'Guru ka Langar', with the traditional 'Karah Prasad'.

Sikhs also visit gurdwaras where special programs are arranged and kirtans (religious songs) are sung. Houses and gurdwaras are lit up to add to the festivities. Guru Nanak Dev's life served as a beacon light for his age. He was a great seer, saint and mystic.

He was a prolific poet and a unique singer of God's laudation. A prophet of peace, love, truth and renaissance, he was centuries ahead of his times. His universal message is as fresh and true even today as it was in the past and Sikhs all over the world, practice what Guru Nanak Dev preached, to reaffirm their beliefs in the teachings of their founder.

Indian Festivals - Sikh Festivals

Festivals of India - Buddhist Festivals

2009-12-05T00:50:00.003-08:00

Festivals of India - Buddhist Festivals

Buddha Purnima:

Buddha Jayanti or also known as Buddha Purnima is the most sacred festivals of Buddhist. Buddha Purnima (Buddha Birthday) is celebrated in remembrance Lord Buddha. Lord Buddha is the founder of Buddhism. This day is the birth anniversary of Lord Buddha. It falls on the full moon of the fourth lunar month (month of Vaisakh) i.e. April or May.

Considered to be the ninth avatar of Vishnu. Buddha Jayanti or Buddha Purnima is marked as the most important day, commomerating the three most significant events in the life of Gautama Buddha that occurred on the same day.

His birth, enlightenment and death (nirvana), all happened in the month of Vaishak, on a full moon night in April/May. Thus, this makes the day - called Buddha Purnima Festival or Buddha Jayanti Festival- all the more sacred for Buddhists.

This day is a thrice blessed day. Lord Buddha is considered the ninth avatar (incarnation) of Vishnu (Preserver in the Hindu Holy Trinity of Creator-Preserver-Destroyer). Gautam Buddha "lived and died in about the fifth century before the Christian era". Buddha means "enlightened one" - someone who is completely freefrom all faults and mental obstructions.

Gautam Buddha was not a god and the philosophy of Buddhism does not entail any theistic world-view. The teachings of the Buddha are solely to liberate human beings from the misery and sufferings of life.

Indian Festivals - Buddhist Festivals

Festivals of India - Muslim Festivals

2009-12-05T00:50:00.001-08:00

Festivals of India - Muslim Festivals

Festivals of India - Ramzan:

Ramadan is the ninth month in the Islamic Calendar Year, a month when the "Holy Koran or Quran" was revealed up from heaven by Allah for human beings in 615 AD,as a guidance and declaration.

Islamic Calendar is based on the Lunar calendar (based on the moon and not the sun) The practice of fasting during Ramadan is called "Sawm". To start fasting one has to sight the crescent of the new moon with ones' naked eyes. It is a period of worship and contemplation. Muslims usually go to the Masjid and spend hours studying the Quran and recite a special prayer called the Taraweeh (Night Prayer) in addition to the 5 daily prayers.

Throughout the world, Muslims observe the Ramadan month by fasting and through increased concentration for purification of soul to increase closeness with God. It is a period of worship and contemplation.

Indian Festivals - Muslim Festivals

Festivals of India - Christian Festivals

2009-12-05T00:48:00.002-08:00

Festivals of India - Christian Festivals

Christian Festivals Christmas:

India is a land of festivals and fairs.Every festival has some or the other traditional or religious importance.Every day of the year there is a festival celebrated in some part of the country. Some festivals welcome the seasons of the year, the harvest, the rains, or the full moon. Others celebrate religious occasions, the birthdays of divine beings, Saints, and gurus (the revered teachers), or the advent of the new year. A number of these festivals are common to most parts of India, however, they may be called by different names in the various parts of the country or may be celebrated in a different fashion.Every festival is celebrated in a unique style.

December 25th is the day of celebration and of fun and frolic. As the long awaited winter holidays arrive, Christmas spirit builds up. The lovely snowflakes, our dear Santa, decorated homes complete with whole range of Christmas star, mistletoe, the good-luck plant, ivy, laurels and not the least the beautifully decorated and illuminated Christmas tree are some of the inseparable parts of the picture. The soft music of the Christmas carols and children eager to open their gifts certainly lend unique warmth to the coldest day of the year.

The birth of Christ is perhaps the most popular festival around the world. The dark night sky, the chilly winters all just provide the perfect backdrop for the reigning red and green colors that cheer up the entire scenery. People visit their families and arrange some of the most lavish parties. The most awaited festival, the Christmas signifies love and kindness, joy and happiness.

Christmas is celebrated on a grand-scale all over the world. Christians and even the non-Christian community participate with great enthusiasm in the various festivities associated with it.

Markets, homes and churches take on a festive air. There is lot of activity all around. So much enthusiasm is witnessed everywhere that people get high on the spirit of the festival. Balls, elaborately decorated Christmas trees, delicious cakes and Santa Claus moving in the streets distributing goodies to the children are the main attractions of the festival.

People visit friends and relatives on the day and participate in the masses held in churches. Children particularly enjoy the festival as they receive gifts from their favourite Santa and elders. They also love decorating scenes of Nativity in their houses.

Christian Festivals Easter:

Easter Sunday commemorates the resurrection of Jesus Christ and is celebrated on the third day after Good Friday. It is one of the most important Christian festivals and is celebrated with great joy and enthusiasm. Easter is a Christian holiday celebrated to commemorate the resurrection of Jesus Christ from his death three days after he was crucified and tortured on Good Friday. It falls in springtime and marks the end of the Lent season.

The date of Easter changes each year and several other Christian festivals fix their dates by reference to Easter. There are many symbols associated with Easter- such as eggs , rabbits, chicks and lilies.

Christian Festivals Good Friday:

Good Friday is a special day celebrated by the Christians. It falls towards the end of the Holy Week and marks Jesus' resurrection. Initially called God's Friday, Christ's suffering and death on the cross is remembered. "Good Friday" evolved from "God" or "God's Friday". Good Friday occurs between the March 20th and April 23rd for the decade (2001 to 2010). A plank of wood, representing the cross on which Christ was crucified is displayed in churches for the veneration of believers.

Earlier, only Easter Sunday was celebrated as a holy day by the Christian Church. By the fourth century, each day of the week preceding Easter were established as holy days including Good Friday. It is believed that "Good" represents the good gift of salvation brought forth by martyrdom.

Indian Festivals - Christian Festivals

Festivals of India Hindu Fesitvals

2009-12-05T00:48:00.001-08:00

Festivals of India - Hindu Fesitvals
Diwali: Diwali or Deepavali, is a major Hindu festival. Known as the "Festival of Lights,". It is believed that it was on this day that Lord Rama entered Ayodhya after fourteen years of exile. Deepavali is also celebrated as Naraka Chaturdashi, the day when the demon of darkness and dirt, Narakasura, was destroyed by Lord Krishna. The celebrations commence with a purifying oil bath and the lighting of lamps, symbolic of the spiritual light pervading the earth and the destruction of darkness and ignorance.
Diwali symbolises the victory of good over evil, and lamps are lit as a sign of celebration and hope for mankind. Celebrations focus on lights and lamps, particularly traditional diyas (as illustrated). Fireworks are associated with the festival in some regions of the country. Diwali is the festival of sweets. Days before the festival , the ladies of the family start preparing traditional delicacies for the family and friends. On Diwali they distribute these sweets to the friends and neighbours and the needy. We cannot imagine Diwali without sweets and savouries that are specially made at home. These sweets are very family specific. Each family has its own recipe of the cuisines which they use year after year. Pongal: The spirit of Pongal, the harvest festival of Tamil Nadu, is giving thanks to God for a bountiful harvest as people prepare a special dish called 'Sarkkarai Pongal' and pray for the blessings of the Sun God. One of the most popular Tamilian festival, it is celebrated on January 14th every year coinciding with Makar Sankranti in the North, Lohri in Punjab, Bhogali Bihu in Assam and Bhogi of Andhra Pradesh. Mainly a three-day festival, the fourth day just after the festival is dedicated to outdoors and excursions. Pongal also marks the beginning of a New Year and is the day to praise and thank God with full devotion and faith and sincerity of heart. Old vices and past should be abandoned forever on this day as we get ready to start life afresh. The festival covers all living beings including humans, cattle and birds and crops. Even the insects have not been overlooked and are offered rice flour to feed on in the form of 'Kollam' on the entranceway of the houses. Thus, Pongal is a day for peace and happiness for all. Onam: Onam Festival is one of the most important festival of Kerala or South India. It is a bright and colourful festival that celebrates the bounties of nature and a year of good harvest. The festival stretches on for ten days - days filled with feasting, boat racing, singing and dancing. Rituals along with new clothes, traditional cuisine, dance, and music mark this harvest festival. Women dress up in new saris and heavy jewelry and make elaborate and intricate designs of 'rangolis' (with colored rice paste) and 'pookkalam' (with flowers) in front of their homes. Ganesh Chaturathi: Ganesh Chaturathi is a day of worship of Lord Ganesha or Ganapati. Ganesha or Ganapati is an extremely popular God in India. He is called Vighneshvara or Vighnahartaa, the Lord of and destroyer of obstacles. People mostly worship Him asking for siddhi, success in undertakings, and buddhi, intelligence. He is worshipped before any venture is started. He is also the God of education, knowledge and wisdom, literature, and the fine arts. Holi: Holi also known as festival of colors has a traditional significance of social harmony between the various classes of society. It is the day when all classes of people are free to draw all parts of society into a celebration including passers by. The celebrations of holi festival in india are usually carried out on people of different class on each other, thus representing a time for breaking down barriers. Navratri: Navratri is one of the holy festivals of hinduism. Nav' means 'nine' and 'ratri' means 'night', thus, 'Navratri' means 'nine nights'. It is a festival of nine nights, during which we worship goddess of shakti. When the supreme being begins to manifest its cosmic energy, it is variously known as Sakti, Devi or Divine Mother, who assumes many forms according to the tasks to be preformed by her. She is also known as Durga, Lakshmi or Sarawati in her destructive, protective, and knowledge giving roles respectively. These three aspects of the Divine Mother are worshipped during Devi Navaratri puja, the nine nights. It lasts for nine days in honour of the nine manifestations of Durga. During Navaratri (the word literally means "nine nights") devotees of Durga observe a fast. Indian Festivals - Hindu Festivals

states and capitals

2009-12-05T00:45:00.002-08:00

STATES AND CAPITALS

States	Capital	Languages
Andra Pradesh	Hyderabad	Telugu and Urdu
Arunachal Pradesh	Itanager	Miji, Apotanji, Merdukpen, Tagin,Adi, Honpa, Bangini-Nishi.
Assam	Dispur	Assamese
Bihar	Patna	Hindi
Chhattisgarh	Raipur	Hindi
Goa	Panaji	Marathi and Konkani
Gujarat	Gandhinagar	Gujarati
Haryana	Chandigarh	Hindi
Himachal Pradesh	Shimla	Hindi and Pahari
Mizoram	Aizawl	Mizo and English
Jammu & Kashmir	Srinagar (Summer) Jammu (Winter)	Kashmiri,Dogri, Urdu, Ladakhi, Pahari,Punjabi and Dadri
Jharkhand	Ranchi	Hindi
Karnataka	Bangalore	Kannda
Kerala	Trivandrum	Malayalam
Madhya Pradesh	Bhopal	Hindi
Maharashtra	Bombay	Marathi
Manipur	Imphal	Manipuri
Meghalaya	Shillong	Khasi, Jaintia and Garo
Nagaland	Kohima	Ao, Konyak, Angami, Sema and Lotha
Orissa	Bhubaneswar	Oriya
Punjab	Chandigarh	Punjabi
Rajasthan	Jaipur	Rajasthani and Hindi
Sikkim	Gangtok	Bhutia, Hindi, Nepali, Lepcha, Limbu
Tamil Nadu	Chennai	Tamil
Tripura	Agartala	Bengali, Tripuri, Manipuri, Kakborak
Uttar Pradesh	Lucknow	Hindi
Uttaranchal	Dehra Dun	Hindi
West Bengal	Calcutta	Bengali

National Fruit of India

2009-12-05T00:45:00.001-08:00

National Fruit of India:

Mango (Mangifera Indica) is the National fruit of India. Mango is one of the most widely grown fruits of the tropical countries. In India, mango is cultivated almost in all parts, with the exception of hilly areas. Mango is a rich source of Vitamins A, C and D.

In India, we have hundreds of varieties of mangoes. They are of different sizes, shapes and colors. Mangoes have been cultivated in India since time immemorial. Even in our mythology and history there are stories of mangoes- the famous Indian poet Kalidasa sang its praise.

Alexander the great, along with Hieun Tsang savored the taste of mangoes. The great Mughal king, Akbar is said to have planted over 100,000 mango trees in Darbhanga (modern Bihar). The mango is eaten ripe and is also used for pickles.

National Fruit of India

National Flower of India

2009-12-05T00:44:00.000-08:00

National Flower of India:

Lotus (Nelumbo Nucipera Gaertn) is the National Flower of India. It is a sacred flower and occupies a unique position in the art and mythology of ancient India and has been an auspicious symbol of Indian culture since time immemorial.

National Flower of India

Languages of India

2009-12-05T00:43:00.002-08:00

Languages of India:

There are around 18 languages recognized by the Indian Constitution.The Languages are

Assamese

Bengali

Gujrati

Hindi

Kannada

Kashmiri

Konkani

Malayalam

Manipuri

Marathi

Nepali

Oriya

Punjabi

Sanskrit

Sindhi

Tamil

Telugu

Urdu

Hindi is the official and main link language of India. Its homeland is mainly in the north of India, but it is spoken and widely understood in all urban centers of India.
It is written in the Devanagri script, which is phonetic and, unlike English, is pronounced as it is written.

Hindi is a direct descendant of Sanskrit through Prakrit and Apabhramsha.
It has been influenced and enriched by Dravidian, Turkish, Farsi, Arabic, Portugese and English. It is a very expressive language.

In poetry and songs, it can convey emotions using simple and gentle words.
It can also be used for exact and rational reasoning.

Indian Languages

National Bird of India

2009-12-05T00:43:00.001-08:00

National Bird of India:

The Indian peacock, Pavo cristatus (Linnaeus), the national bird of India, is a colourful, swan-sized bird, with a fan-shaped crest of feathers, a white patch under the eye and a long, slender neck. The male of the species is more colourful than the female, with a glistening blue breast and neck and a spectacular bronze-green train of around 200 elongated feathers. The female is brownish, slightly smaller than the male, and lacks the train. The elaborate courtship dance of the male, fanning out the tail and preening its feathers, is a gorgeous sight.

The peacock is widely found in the Indian sub-continent from the south and east of the Indus river, Jammu and Kashmir, east Assam, south Mizoram and the whole of the Indian peninsula. The Peacock enjoys protection from the people as it is never molested for religious and sentimental reasons. It is fully protected under the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.

National Animal of India

2009-12-05T00:42:00.001-08:00

National Animal of India:

The magnificent tiger, Panthera tigris (Linnaeus), is a striped animal. It has a thick yellow coat of fur with dark stripes. The combination of grace, strength, agility and enormous power has earned the tiger its pride of place as the national animal of India. Out of eight races of the species known, the Indian race, the Royal Bengal Tiger, is found throughout the country except in the north-western region and also in the neighbouring countries, Nepal, Bhutan and Bangladesh. To check the dwindling population of tigers in India ‘Project Tiger’ was launched in April 1973. So far, 25 tiger reserves have been established in the country under this project, covering an area of 33,875 sq km.

National Animal of India

National Anthem of India:

2009-12-05T00:41:00.000-08:00

National Anthem of India:

Composed by Rabindranath Tagore the song Jana-gana-mana is the National Anthem of India. The song was first sung at the Calcutta session of the Indian National Congress on December 27, 1911. It was adopted by the Constituents Assembly of India on January 24, 1950 as India’s National Anthem. The complete song consists of five stanzas but the first stanza constitutes the full version of the National Anthem.

The playing time of the full version of the national Anthem is about 52 seconds. However, a shorter version compressing the first and last lines of the stanza, which has a playing time of about 20 seconds, is played on some occasions. It reads:

Jana-gana-mana-adhinayaka, jaya he

Bharata-bhagya-vidhata

Punjab-Sindh-Gujarat-Maratha

Dravida-Utkala-Banga

Vindhya-Himachal-Yamuna-Ganga

Uchhala-jaladhi-taranga.

Tava subha name jage,

Tava subha asisa mange,

Gahe tava subha gatha,

Jana-gana-mangala-dayaka jaya he

Bharata-bhagya-vidhata.

Jaya he, jaya he, jaya he,

Jaya jaya jaya, jaya he !

The English rendering of the song, as given by Rabindranath Tagore, is as follows:

Thou art the ruler of the minds of all
People, dispenser of India’s destiny.
Thy name rouses the hearts of Punjab, Sind, Gujarat and Maratha.
Of the Dravida and Orissa and Bengal;
It echoes in the hills of Vindhyas and
Himalayas,
Mingles in the music of Jamuna and Ganges,
And is chanted by the waves of the Indian
Sea.
They pray for thy blessings and sing thy praise.
The savings of all people waits in thy
hand, thou dispenser of India’s destiny.
Victory, Victory to thee.

National Anthem of India

National Flag of India:

2009-12-05T00:39:00.000-08:00

National Flag of India:

The National flag is a horizontal tricolour of deep saffron (kesari) at the top, white in the middle and dark green at the bottom in equal proportion. The saffron stands for courage, sacrifice and the spirit of renunciation; the white, for purity and truth; the green for faith and fertility.

The ratio of width of the flag to its length is two to three. In the centre of the white band is a navy blue wheel which represents the chakra. Its design is that of the wheel which appears on the abacus of the Sarnath Lion Capital of Ashoka. Its diameter approximates to the width of the white band and it has 24 spokes, which intends to show that there is life in movement and death in stagnation.

The design of the national flag was adopted by the Constituent Assembly of India on 22 July 1947. Its use and display are regulated by the Indian Flag Code. The flag symbolizes freedom. The late Prime Minister Pandit Nehru called it a flag not only of freedom for ourselves, but a symbol of freedom for all people.

National Flag of India

Dec0y's Movies Collection

2009-11-24T06:32:00.000-08:00

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dec0y

Bringing the School to the Children: Shortening the Path to EFA

2008-03-24T22:56:00.001-07:00

Recent education planning initiatives in West and Central Africa show that the path to EFA may be shortened considerably by reconsidering the way basic education is delivered in isolated rural communities. Since independence, education systems have been expanding rapidly and are now serving most of the easy-to-reach population. For progress to continue, the focus must be shifted toward the sparsely populated areas, which means adjusting the type of schools used, and building them close to where children live.

download

http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EDUCATION/Resources/Education-Notes/EdNotesRuralAccessInitiative.pdf

Education for All: Compensating for Disadvantage in Mexico

2008-03-24T22:55:00.000-07:00

Education for all means learning for all. It means closing the “advantage” gap - making sure that the children of the poor and disadvantaged achieve the same levels of learning as all other children. This is one of the great challenges any country can face. It is a particular challenge in a diverse country such as Mexico, where many children do not speak Spanish, live in villages inaccessible by roads and cannot afford such basic expenditures as school uniforms.

download

http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EDUCATION/Resources/Education-Notes/EduNotes_Mexico2.pdf

Getting an Early Start on Early Child Development

2008-03-24T22:54:00.002-07:00

The children born this year - 2004 - will be eleven years old in 2015 - the age of primary school completion in most countries. This is the MDG* generation - for whom the international community has pledged that by 2015, all children will be able to complete primary schooling. Ensuring good early child development is the first essential step toward achieving these goals.

download

http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EDUCATION/Resources/Education-Notes/EdNotes_ECD_2.pdf

When Governments Get Creative: Adult Literacy in Senegal

2008-03-24T22:54:00.001-07:00

The Education for All (EFA) goal of increasing adult literacy by 50 percent reflects two simple facts: first, primary school attendance has positive effects, including better family health and increased productivity; and second, when parents learn to read, more children go to school. So why haven’t more countries and donors supported adult literacy programs as a routine part of their EFA planning? One reason is that government programs tend to be too expensive, with weak content and high drop-out rates. Despite these constraints, Senegal appears to have found a way to implement a successful adult literacy program.

download

http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EDUCATION/Resources/Education-Notes/EdNotes_Senegal_3.pdf

School Fees: A Roadblock to Education For All

2008-03-24T22:53:00.001-07:00

There is increasing momentum on the road to Education for All (EFA), but school fees are still a roadblock for too many children. Several African countries have recently abolished school fees outright. The dramatic surge in enrollments that followed is strong evidence that the payment of fees can be a major obstacle to enrollment.

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http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EDUCATION/Resources/Education-Notes/EdNotes_Userfee_3.pdf

Decentralizing Education in Guatemala: School Management by Local Communities

2008-03-24T22:52:00.000-07:00

Guatemala set out in 1992 to increase access to education in remote areas. Its National Community-managed Program for Educational Development (PRONADE) has evolved from a small, innovative pilot program in 19 rural communities, to a nationwide program reaching over 4,100 communities and 445,000 children. PRONADE is one of the most proactive managerial, administrative, and financial decentralization measures taken in Latin America. Isolated rural communities have been truly empowered to administer and manage the schools.

download

http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EDUCATION/Resources/Education-Notes/EduNotes_Guatemala.pdf

In Their Own Language…Education for All

2008-03-24T22:51:00.000-07:00

Fifty percent of the world’s out-of-school children live in communities where the language of schooling is rarely, if ever, used at home. This underscores the biggest challenge to achieving Education for All (EFA): a legacy of non-productive practices that lead to low levels of learning and high levels of dropout and repetition. In these circumstances, an increase in resources, although necessary, would not be sufficient to produce universal completion of a good-quality primary school program

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http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EDUCATION/Resources/Education-Notes/EdNotes_Lang_of_Instruct.pdf

EFA and Beyond: Service Provision and Quality Assurance in China

2008-03-24T22:50:00.002-07:00

China is not often thought of in the EFA context but its education sector over the past 20 years provides many lessons for countries that are approaching Universal Primary Education (UPE). The most important lesson may be that the need for educational reform does not diminish as countries approach UPE. The first challenge is to expand education opportunities. As coverage expands, however, new challenges inevitably emerge that require constant attention and frequent updates to education policy and financing mechanisms.

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http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EDUCATION/Resources/Education-Notes/EdNotes_China.pdf

Education for All: The Cost of Accessibility

2008-03-24T22:50:00.001-07:00

The goal of Education for All (EFA) is to provide universal access to primary education throughout the world. To accomplish this goal, as many as 10 million classrooms will be built in developing countries by 2015. A key objective of the program is to ensure that no child is denied access to education because of disability.

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http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EDUCATION/Resources/Education-Notes/EdNotes_CostOfAccess_2.pdf

Fast Track Initiative: Building a Global Compact for Education

2008-03-24T22:49:00.000-07:00

Around the world, there are still over 100 million children out of school, including 58 million girls. Despite overwhelming evidence that education can halt the spread of AIDS, increase economic growth and break the cycle of poverty, donor support for education has only increased modestly since 2000, when world leaders unanimously endorsed Universal Primary Education (UPE) by 2015.

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http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EDUCATION/Resources/Education-Notes/EdNotes_FastTrack.pdf

Enhancing Accountability in Schools: What Can Choice and Contracting Contribute

2008-03-24T22:46:00.000-07:00

Governments around the world, particularly those in developing countries, face significant educational challenges. Today, about 77 million children from the developing world are not enrolled in school and most children who complete school find they are not sufficiently prepared for the world of work. A number of governments have responded to the twin challenges of getting and keeping more children enrolled in school, while simultaneously ensuring that learning outcomes improve, by introducing policies that emphasize choice, managerial autonomy and accountability for results.

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http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EDUCATION/Resources/Education-Notes/EdNotes_Accountability.pdf

African-canadian education

2008-03-04T21:55:00.000-08:00

139 (1) There is hereby established a Council on African-Canadian Education.

(2) The Minister shall establish the terms of reference for the Council on African-Canadian Education in consultation with the Black Learners Advisory Committee.

(3) The Council shall

(a) promote the rights and interests of African-Nova Scotians by providing recommendations to the Minister on programs and services in public schools and on adult education; and

(b) perform such other duties as determined by the regulations.

(4) Pending the appointment of the members of the Council pursuant to subsection (5), the Council is composed of the members of the Black Learners Advisory Committee.

(5) Members of the Council shall be appointed by the Minister for such terms and upon such conditions as determined by the regulations.

(6) The Council shall meet at least four times a year.

(7) Meetings of the Council shall be presided over by a member of the Council chosen by the Council.

(8) The members of the Council are entitled to such remuneration and shall be reimbursed for such reasonable expenses as are necessarily incurred in carrying out their duties, as the Governor in Council determines by regulation. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 139.

140 School boards shall

(a) provide and implement programs and policies promoting African-Canadian education; and

(b) include in learning materials information respecting the history, heritage, culture, traditions and the contribution to society of African people. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 140.

GENERAL

141 The Minister may

(a) subject to the regulations, direct the expenditure of all sums appropriated by the Legislature for educational purposes;

(b) prescribe the conditions of graduation from the Nova Scotia Teachers College;

(c) authorize and empower the Nova Scotia Teachers College to confer such degrees, honours, diplomas and certificates in education as the Minister may specify;

(d) determine the requirements and conditions with which a person must comply to receive a degree, honour, diploma or certificate in education from the Nova Scotia Teachers College;

(e) subject to the regulations, classify teachers and grant teachers' certificates and permits;

(f) after consultation with a school board, approve plans for school buildings;

(g) maintain and operate the Nova Scotia School Book Bureau for the purchase, sale and distribution of school books and other learning materials prescribed by the regulations for use in the public schools;

(h) establish a trust fund, to be known as the Maintenance Stabilization Trust Fund, for the purpose of lending money to school boards for capital purposes;

(i) make loans from the Maintenance Stabilization Trust Fund to school boards, on such terms and conditions as the Minister determines;

(j) require that reports and returns be made by teachers, school advisory councils, school boards and others engaged in the conduct or management of public schools;

(k) effect improvement generally in the conduct and administration of school boards, and, among other things, consult with, assist and advise school boards, develop proper methods of school board administration, financing, accounting and auditing, collaborate with public education organizations and other bodies and collect, compile and disseminate education statistics and information;

(l) do such other things as the Minister deems necessary to carry out effectively the Minister's duties under this Act. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 141 .

142 (1) The Minister may appoint persons in the Civil Service as regional education officers for the purpose of this Act.

(2) A regional education officer shall

(a) act as an educational adviser to one or more school boards;

(b) visit schools and report to the Minister on the educational activities at the schools and the conditions of the schools, consult with and co-operate with other educational agencies and generally aid the Minister in keeping in touch with educational conditions throughout the Province;

(d) perform such other duties as the Minister determines. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 142 .

143 (1) The payments made by the Minister or a school board for all or a portion of the cost of any policy of insurance or any other benefits plan provided to teachers including, without limiting the generality of the foregoing, life insurance, accidental death and dismemberment insurance or medical and dental plans are financial assistance for the purpose of the Auditor General Act and subject to audit by the Auditor General.

(2) Subsection 85(4) applies mutatis mutandis to an audit pursuant to this Section. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 143.

144 The Governor in Council may receive in trust, hold and spend sums of money donated, bequeathed or subscribed for the use of public schools. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 144 .

145 (1) The Minister may make regulations

(a) after consultation with the Council on Mi'kmaq Education, respecting the Council on Mi'kmaq Education;

(b) after consultation with the Council on African-Canadian Education, respecting the Council on African-Canadian Education;

(d) prescribing the minimum number of hours of instruction to which students in the public schools are entitled;

(e) prescribing reporting systems and forms for the administration and effective carrying out of this Act;

(f) for the administration of the Nova Scotia School Book Bureau;

(g) prescribing courses of study and authorizing learning materials for use in the public schools;

(h) establishing a provincial policy respecting the discipline of students;

(i) establishing a provincial policy respecting special-education programming and services;

(j) respecting students who have been suspended;

(k) prescribing an appeal process for where there is a disagreement between a school board and a parent of a child with special needs respecting the individualized program plan for that child;

(ka) defining "senior staff" for the purpose of subsections 64(3A), (3B) and (3C);

(kb) respecting an administrative structure and a compensation framework for the purpose of subsections 64(3B) and (3C);

(l) prescribing the manner and form in which a school board is to report, as required by this Act, the payments, including salaries and expenses, made to and benefits conferred on members and employees of the school board;

(m) prescribing the manner in which a school board is to identify public schools to be considered for permanent closing;

(n) governing the permanent closing of a public school by a school board where the school board does not have a by-law governing such closing;

(o) defining "permanent closing" for the purpose of clauses (m) and (n);

(p) prescribing the public school program of education to be provided and administered by school boards;

(q) for the support, conduct, operation and management of public schools and services;

(r) respecting the Nova Scotia Teachers College;

(s) respecting school advisory councils;

(sa) establishing a Provincial conflict of interest policy for school board staff;

(t) approving a financial management system respecting estimates, bookkeeping and accounting to be adopted by school boards, and the form of and the manner in which all estimates, books of account, registers, records, vouchers, receipts and other books and documents relating to the assets, liabilities, revenues and expenditures of school boards shall be kept, and the manner in which all funds and moneys thereof shall be accounted for.

(2) The exercise by the Minister of the authority contained in subsection (1) is regulations within the meaning of the Regulations Act. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 145; 2002, c. 5, s. 15.

146 (1) The Governor in Council may make regulations

(a) respecting the expenditure, by way of grants, of moneys from time to time appropriated by the Legislature for grants for educational purposes and prescribing the terms and conditions upon which such grants shall be paid;

(b) respecting surplus operating funds of school boards;

(c) prescribing or prohibiting the investment of money of school boards and prescribing investments or classes of investments in which such money may be invested for the sound and efficient management of any money of school boards;

(ca) respecting the composition of an audit committee of a school board and the terms of reference of that committee;

(d) respecting the construction, location and control of public school buildings;

(e) respecting the classification of teachers and the granting, cancellation and suspension of teachers' certificates and permits, and requiring the collection and payment of fees respecting initial certificates, duplicate certificates and renewal certificates and higher classes of certificates and statements of professional standing;

(f) requiring teachers and any other class or classes of employees of school boards or of persons providing services for school boards to undergo medical examinations, prescribing the nature of those examinations and the conditions under which they shall be given, and subject to the Health Protection Act prescribing the conditions under which such teachers and employees may continue teaching or in employment in or in connection with public schools;

(g) prescribing terms and conditions relating to cancellation, suspension or modification of contracts between teachers and school boards as a result of medical examinations made pursuant to the regulations;

(h) prescribing the legal age limit for students and the conditions of satisfactory attendance for public schools;

(i) prescribing the method for determining those who are entitled to receive a French-first-language program in the Province;

(j) establishing procedures for determining the demand for French-first-language programs in the Province;

(k) providing for the manner in which students may be transferred between a school of the Conseil acadien and a school of another school board;

(l) providing for the sharing of enrolment information between the Conseil acadien and another school board;

(m) providing for the method of determining the location of French-first-language program educational facilities;

(n) providing for the conveyance of students, including the conveyance of students to facilities providing a French-first-language program;

(o) generally providing for the provision and administration of French-first-language programs in the Province;

(p) respecting such other matters as the Governor in Council deems necessary or advisable for French-first-language programs;

(q) respecting home education programs including, without limiting the generality of the foregoing, the appointment of independent assessors;

(r) respecting private schools;

(s) respecting any matter that the Governor in Council may deem necessary or advisable to give effect to the designation of a school region or for the effective establishment and operation of all regional school boards or a particular regional school board;

(t) determining the remuneration of and respecting the reimbursement for expenses of members of the Council on Mi'kmaq Education;

(u) determining the remuneration of and respecting the reimbursement for expenses of members of the Council on African-Canadian Education;

(v) prescribing the fees to be paid to the Minister and to the school board by foreign students;

(w) prescribing the fees to be paid to the Minister for services rendered by the Department of Education and Culture;

(x) setting the maximum percentage of the school board budget or the maximum amount that may be spent for non-instructional purposes;

(xa) respecting students with special needs attending approved special education private schools, including

(ii) determining eligibility requirements of students,

(iii) approving special education private schools,

(iv) the monitoring of approved special education private schools,

(v) the funding with respect to students with special needs attending approved special education private schools, including grants or funding based on income,

(vi) fees,

(vii) the appointment and remuneration of a person to approve applications for funding referred to in subclause (v),

(viii) appeals,

(ix) authorizing the Minister to perform the functions referred to in subclauses (i) to (viii);

(xb) determining or designating anything required to be determined or designated under Sections 10A to 10F;

(xc) for the purpose of subsection 64(5);

(y) respecting confidentiality of information held by a school board or a school with respect to students and the release of such information;

(ya) respecting any matter, including the modification, restriction or enlargement of words, expressions or provisions, that the Governor in Council may deem necessary or advisable to give effect to the establishment and operation of district school boards or a particular district school board;

(yb) prescribing additional duties of a director of education of a district school board;

(yc) prescribing additional duties of the Chief Executive Officer of the Southwest Regional School Board;

(yd) designating a school region and a regional school board or the Conseil acadien for the purpose of Section 10J and determining the extent and terms and conditions upon which Sections 10A to 10I apply in each case;

(ye) determining which provisions of this Act apply to the Southwest Regional School Board, and any school board designated pursuant to clause (yd), and which provisions apply to the district school boards, or to both;

(z) defining any word or expression used in this Act and not defined herein;

(aa) respecting any other matter the Governor in Council considers necessary or advisable to carry out effectively the intent and purpose of this Act.

(2) The exercise by the Governor in Council of the authority contained in subsection (1) is regulations within the meaning of the Regulations Act. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 146; 2000, c. 11, s. 9; 2002, c. 5, s. 16; 2004, c. 3, s. 19; 2004, c. 4, s. 110.

147 amendment

148 and 149 amendments

150 amendment

151 amendment

152 A reference in any Act of the Legislature or in any rule, order, regulation, by-law, ordinance or proceeding or in any document whatsoever to the Department of Education or the Minister or Deputy Minister of that Department, whether the reference is by official name or otherwise, shall as regards any subsequent transaction, matter or thing be held and construed to be a reference to the Department of Education and Culture or to the Minister or Deputy Minister of that Department, respectively, where the reference relates to an affair, matter or function that, by or pursuant to the Public Service Act or this Act, is assigned to the Department of Education and Culture or to the Minister or Deputy Minister of that Department. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 152.

153 Chapter 6 of the Acts of 1991, the School Boards Act, is repealed. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 153.

154 amendments

155 (1) The former Act is repealed.

(2) Notwithstanding subsection (1), the council of a municipality may levy an area rate pursuant to the former Act where a school board requested the area rate before this Act came into force. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 155 .

156 Effective August 1, 1996,

(a) all boards of trustees under this Act are dissolved; and

(b) the heading immediately preceding Section 94 and Sections 94 to 110 are repealed. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 156.

157 For greater certainty, any regulation made pursuant to Chapter 6 of the Acts of 1991, the School Boards Act, or the former Act remain in force, in so far as they are not inconsistent with this Act until others are made in their stead. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 157 .

158 This Act comes into force on and not before such day as the Governor in Council declares by proclamation. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 158.

mi`maq education

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137 (1) There is hereby established a Council on Mi'kmaq Education.

(2) The Minister shall establish the terms of reference for the Council on Mi'kmaq Education in consultation with the Task Force on Mi'kmaq Education.

(3) The Council shall

(a) promote the rights and interests of the Mi'kmaq by providing recommendations to the Minister on programs and services in public schools and on adult education; and

(b) perform such other duties as determined by the regulations.

(4) Pending the appointment of the members of the Council pursuant to subsection (5), the Council is composed of the members of the Task Force on Mi'kmaq Education.

(5) Members of the Council shall be appointed by the Minister for such terms and upon such conditions as determined by the regulations.

(6) The Council shall meet at least four times a year.

(7) Meetings of the Council shall be presided over by a member of the Council chosen by the Council.

138 School boards shall

(a) provide and implement programs and policies promoting Mi'kmaq education; and

(b) include in learning materials information respecting the history, language, heritage, culture, traditions and the contribution to society of the Mi'kmaq. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 138.

community facilities

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133 (1) A school board and a municipality may enter into an agreement whereby the municipality agrees to pay the capital cost of a community facility to be acquired by the school board in or in association with a public school and the cost of maintaining and operating the community facility.

(2) For the purpose of this Act, a school property includes a proposed school property.

(3) For the purpose of this Act, the capital cost of a community facility or a school property includes all costs incurred in acquiring the community facility or the school property, including costs of acquiring land and costs of designing, constructing, furnishing and equipping the community facility.

(4) An agreement shall not be entered into unless the agreement relates to a community facility that is part of a school property, and a municipality shall not pay the capital cost of a community facility that is an alteration, addition or improvement to a school property except pursuant to an agreement.

(5) An agreement with respect to a community facility shall

(a) describe the community facility and school property to which the agreement relates;

(b) set out the capital cost of the community facility, expressed as either

(ii) a proportion of the combined capital cost of the community facility and the school property to which the agreement relates;

(c) set out the respective obligations of the parties to the agreement respecting the operation and maintenance of the community facility;

(d) set out the respective rights of the parties to the agreement with respect to access to and use of the community facility; and

(e) include such provisions as are necessary or conducive to carrying out the intent and purpose of the agreement.

(6) An agreement with respect to a community facility is of no effect unless the agreement is approved by the Minister.

(7) A copy of an agreement with respect to a community facility, executed by both parties thereto, and on which is endorsed the approval of the Minister, shall be filed with the Minister, the Minister of Municipal Affairs and the member of the Executive Council assigned responsibility for the Nova Scotia Sport and Recreation Commission. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 133; 2004, c. 6, s. 3 .

134 (1) A school board and a municipality may

(a) do every act, exercise every power and expend every sum of money necessary or proper for the purpose of implementing in every respect all of its obligations under an agreement with respect to a community facility; and

(b) do and perform the acts, matters and things that the agreement provides be done or performed by them in the manner, with the effect and under the conditions stipulated and provided in the agreement.

(2) All money required for the payment or performance by the municipality of its obligations under an agreement with respect to a community facility shall be held to be money required for the ordinary lawful purposes of the municipality and shall be levied, raised and collected in all respects as other money required for the ordinary lawful purposes of the municipality is levied, raised and collected.

(3) For the purpose of raising money to pay or perform its obligations under an agreement with respect to a community facility, the municipality may recover annually, from the area that benefits from the community facility to which the agreement relates, the amount required to pay such amounts by an area rate to be collected in the same manner as municipal rates and taxes with the same rights and remedies in the event of default of payment and, for greater certainty, the amount may be rated without a petition of the ratepayers.

(4) Any money required by the municipality for the purpose of paying the capital cost of a community facility under an agreement may be borrowed, and such borrowing is and is deemed to be for a municipal purpose within the meaning of the Municipal Affairs Act. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 134; 2004, c. 6, s. 4 .

135 (1) Where the community facility to which the agreement relates is an alteration, addition or improvement to a school property owned by a school board, the school board shall hold the school property in trust.

(2) The municipality is entitled to receive

(a) in the event of the sale of the property; or

(b) in the event of partial or complete destruction of the property,

a share of the proceeds from the sale or any insurance recovery, less any amount required to be paid to the Province pursuant to this Act.

(3) The municipality's share is equal to the proportion that the capital amount paid by the municipality pursuant to the agreement bears to the appraised value of the whole property.

(4) Every amount recovered by the municipality pursuant to this Section shall be paid into the special reserve fund of the municipality.

(5) A school board shall not sell a school property to which an agreement with respect to a community facility relates without first offering to sell the school property to the municipality. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 135 .

136 Nothing in this Act respecting an agreement with respect to a community facility means or shall be construed to mean that either a municipality or a school board is relieved from obtaining a consent or approval of the Minister or the Minister of Municipal Affairs required by this or another enactment. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 136 .

home education

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128 (1) A parent may provide a home education program to a child of the parent centered in the child's home.

(2) A parent providing a home education program to a child shall

(a) register the child for each school academic year with the Minister; and

(b) report the child's progress to the Minister,

as prescribed by the regulations.

(3) With the approval of the school board, a child in a home education program may attend courses offered by a school board, subject to any terms and conditions prescribed by the school board.

(4) The Minister may require the parent of a child in a home education program to provide evidence of the child's educational progress by providing one or more of the following as the parent determines:

(a) results of a standardized test;

(b) an assessment from a qualified assessor;

as prescribed by the regulations.

(5) Notwithstanding subsection (4), where, in the Minister's opinion, further evidence of a child's educational progress is required, the Minister may appoint an independent assessor, as prescribed by the regulations, to assess and report to the Minister whether

(a) the child is making reasonable educational progress;

(b) the home education program is adequately addressing the child's needs; and

(c) the available public school program will do more to further the child's educational progress than the home education program.

(6) A parent may request that a child in a home education program be assessed through an assessment instrument authorized by the Minister in order to determine the child's educational progress, in accordance with the regulations.

(7) When, following participation in a home education program, a child enrolls in a public school, the school board shall determine the child's grade placement. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 128.

129 (1) A parent may not provide or continue to provide a home education program to a child if, based on the evidence provided pursuant to subsection 128(4) and the report made pursuant to subsection 128(5), the Minister determines that

(a) the home education program does not meet the requirements of this Act and the regulations; or

(b) the child is not making reasonable educational progress as determined by the child's performance as measured pursuant to subsection 128(4).

(2) Before making a determination pursuant to subsection (1), the Minister shall

(a) notify the parent, in writing, by registered mail of the Minister's intent to make the determination; and

(b) give the parent an opportunity to make representation to the Minister in writing as to why the home education program should be provided or continued. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 129 .

PRIVATE SCHOOLS

130 A child may attend a private school. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 130.

131 (1) A private school shall

(a) meet local health, safety and building standards;

(b) provide statistical information with respect to the school, as required by the Minister; and

(c) where requested by the Minister, provide evidence that students are making reasonable educational progress appropriate for their age and grade level based upon results of nationally or internationally recognized standardized achievement tests.

(2) The Minister may appoint or designate a regional education officer to assess a private school, including its teachers, its educational programs and its instructional materials, to inspect its facilities and to perform such other duties with respect to the private school as the Minister may require.

(3) A private school may offer a religious-based curriculum. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 131.

132 Upon application by a private school to the Minister in accordance with the regulations, the Minister may recognize the school's program of studies as meeting the requirements for a high school leaving certificate. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 132 .

Student conduct

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121 Where a student in a class is persistently disobedient or defiant or acts in a manner likely to affect injuriously the proper conduct of the class or the welfare or education of other students in the class, the teacher of the class may require the student to leave the class and shall refer the student to the principal. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 121 .

122 Where a student enrolled in a public school is persistently disobedient or defiant or conducts himself or herself in a manner likely to affect injuriously the proper conduct of the school or the welfare or education of other students enrolled in the school, the principal, or the person in charge of the school, may suspend the student for a period of not more than five school days. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 122 .

123 (1) When a student is suspended pursuant to Section 122 the principal or other person in charge of the school shall immediately notify, in writing, the student, the student's teachers, the school board and the student's parents of the reasons for the suspension.

(2) The student or the student's parents may request a review of the suspension pursuant to Section 122 by the school board within three school days of receiving the notice pursuant to subsection (1).

(3) The school board shall

(a) confirm the suspension under Section 122; or

(b) order that the suspension be revoked and that the suspension be removed from the record of the student. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 123.

124 (1) Where a student is suspended pursuant to Section 122 and the principal is of the view that the student should be suspended for a period greater than five school days, the principal may, in writing, make a recommendation with reasons to the school board that the student be suspended for a period greater than five school days.

(2) When a recommendation is made pursuant to subsection (1), the school board shall immediately notify, in writing, the student and the student's parents of the principal's recommendation and reasons.

(3) Within seven days of having received the recommendation of the principal under subsection (1), the school board shall

(a) dismiss the principal's recommendation; or

(b) extend the suspension of the student for a period of greater than five school days.

(4) Where the suspension of a student begins within two months of the end of the school academic year, the period of time for which a school board may extend the suspension under subsection (3) may include a portion of the next academic year.

(5) The school board shall notify the student, the parents of the student, the student's teachers, the principal or person in charge of the school of its decision under subsection (3) within three days of the meeting at which the decision was made.

(6) Where the school board decides under subsection (3) to extend the suspension of the student, the school board shall include in its notice under subsection (5)

(a) the period for which the student is to be further suspended;

(b) the reasons for the decision to further suspend the student; and

(7) When a student or the parent of a student has been notified of the suspension of the student pursuant to (5), the student or the parent may, within seven days of receiving such notice, appeal the suspension to the school board.

(8) The school board shall, upon receipt of a notice of appeal pursuant to subsection (7)

(a) immediately notify the parent of the student and the student of the time and place of the hearing of the appeal and the right of the student or parent, or both, to appear in person with or without counsel;

(b) within ten days of receipt of the notice of appeal, hold a hearing and confirm, revoke or vary the decision of the school board.

(9) Within three clear days of the hearing, the school board shall notify the student, the student's parent, the student's counsel, the student's teachers and the principal or person in charge of the school of its decision, which decision shall be final and binding. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 124.

125 (1) The powers and duties of the school board set out in subsections 123(3) and 124(3) may be performed

(a) if so directed by the school board, by one or more committees consisting of the superintendent and two members of the school board, one of whom shall act as chair of the committee;

(b) if so directed by the school board, by the school advisory council of the school or a committee of the school advisory council;

(c) with the approval of the Minister, by one or more committees of persons designated by office or named by the school board.

(2) The power and duties of the school board set out in subsection 124(8) may be performed, if so directed by the school board, by one or more committees consisting of the superintendent and two members of the school board, one of whom shall act as chair of the committee. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 125 .

126 Where a student is suspended for more than five school days, the school board, in consultation with the student's parent, shall make every reasonable effort to provide alternative arrangements for the education of the student, in accordance with the regulations. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 126 .

127 (1) The principal of a public school, or such other supervisory person as may be designated by the school board, may suspend a student's right to use the school bus if, in that person's judgement, the student has refused to comply with reasonable rules or regulations of the school board or directions given by the bus driver or if, in that person's judgement, the behaviour of the student while on the bus endangers the safety of others using the bus.

(2) A person who suspends a student's right pursuant to subsection (1) to use the school bus shall report this action immediately to the school board and inform the student's parent by the speediest method convenient of that person's action.

(3) Where the student's right to use the school bus has been suspended for a period of more than two days, the student and the student's parent shall be notified in writing of the reason for the suspension and, where the suspension is for a period of more than five school days, of the right of appeal pursuant to subsection (4).

(4) Where a student is suspended for a period of more than five school days, the parent of the student or the student, if the student is of the age of majority, may, within seven days of receiving notice of the suspension pursuant to subsection (3), appeal the decision to suspend.

(5) Where a notice of appeal has been received by the school board pursuant to subsection (4), the balance of the suspension shall be stayed until the school board confirms, revokes or varies the suspension.

(6) The school board shall, upon receipt of a notice of appeal

(a) immediately by registered mail notify the parent of the student, or the student, where the student is of the age of majority, of the time and place of the hearing of the appeal; and

(b) within ten days of receipt of the notice of appeal, hold a hearing respecting the suspension and within three school days following that hearing confirm, revoke or vary the decision to suspend.

(7) No parent or other person in charge of any student, having been sent by the school board by registered mail a notice of suspension of the student's right to use the school bus, shall cause, encourage or permit the student to use the bus during the period of time during which the suspension is in effect. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 127 .

school attendence

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111 Subject to the regulations, every resident of the Province over the age of five years and under the age of sixteen years shall attend school in accordance with the regulations. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 111.

112 When a child lives with or is under the care or in the custody of a person other than the child's parents, that person during the time that the child lives with that person or is under that person's care or in that person's custody, is subject to the duties imposed by this Act on the parents, but the duty and liability of the parent are not thereby affected or diminished. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 112 .

113 A child is not required to attend a public school if the child

(a) is being provided with a home education program in accordance with the regulations;

(b) is enrolled in and in attendance at a private school operating in compliance with this Act; or

114 Certificates of exemption or of employment, of a temporary or permanent nature, may be issued by school boards or an official to whom the school board delegates its authorization in accordance with regulations made pursuant to this Act. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 114.

115 No person shall employ in any work during school hours a child who has not attained the age up to which attendance at school is required by regulations made pursuant to this Act unless an employment certificate authorizing the employment has been issued pursuant to Section 114 and the regulations and is in effect. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 115.

116 The attendance committee of the school board shall

(a) monitor the attendance of students in schools in the district or region;

(b) take steps to reduce the absenteeism of students from schools in the district or region in accordance with policies of the school board; and

(c) recommend to the school board remedial steps and policies in respect of those students who have been reported to the school board by the principal as being habitually absent from school without acceptable excuse. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 116 .

117 A parent or other person having charge or control of any child, shall, within five days after having been served with a notice by the school board naming the child, cause the child to attend school and continue in regular attendance at school, unless the child is excused from attendance under this Act or the regulations or unless that person satisfies the school board that that person is unable to induce the child to attend public school. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 117 .

118 It is prima facie proof to file with a court the following documents:

(a) an affidavit of a person designated by the school board that a notice pursuant to Section 117 was served on a parent or person in charge of the child; and

(b) a certificate purporting to be signed by the teacher, without proof of the teacher's appointment or signature, that the child was absent from school for a period of five or more school days, not necessarily consecutive, following the receipt of the warning notice by a parent or person in charge of the child. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 118.

119 A certificate respecting the enrolment and the attendance or non-attendance of a child in school that is or purports to be signed by a teacher is admissible in evidence without proof of the appointment or signature of the teacher and is prima facie proof of the facts stated in the certificate. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 119 .

120 Where a person is charged with an offence under this Act in respect of a child who is alleged to be within the limits of the ages prescribed by regulations and the child appears to the court to be within those age limits the child shall, for the purposes of this Act, be deemed to be within those age limits unless it is proved to the satisfaction of the court that the child is not of an age within those age limits. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 120 .

school year

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71 (1) The school academic year begins on August 1st in each year and ends on July 31st next following.

(2) The school fiscal year begins on April 1st in each year and ends on March 31st next following. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 71 .

SCHOOL BOARD FINANCES AND PROPERTY

72 The Minister shall make grants to school boards as determined by the regulations with respect to services provided pursuant to Section 64. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 72 .

73 (1) The Minister shall, in each fiscal year, provide to each school board and each municipality that, pursuant to this Act, is to make payments to that school board a statement of

(a) the amounts of financial assistance to be paid by the Minister;

(b) the total of the minimum municipal contributions to be paid by those municipalities; and

in the immediately following fiscal year to school boards pursuant to this Act and the regulations.

(2) The Governor in Council shall determine the rate referred to in subsection (1). 1995-96, c. 1, s. 73.

74 Within thirty days of receipt from the Minister of a statement pursuant to Section 73, each school board shall submit to each municipality in the school district or school region, a statement setting out

(a) the amount of the minimum municipal contribution that the municipality is required to pay pursuant to clause 76(1)(a); and

(b) any additional amount that the municipality is requested to pay pursuant to clause 76(1)(b),

for the fiscal year with respect to which the Minister's statement is made. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 74.

75 (1) Within sixty days of receipt of the Minister's statement pursuant to Section 73, each school board shall cause to be prepared and approve a statement of all estimated revenues and expenditures for the education program and services proposed by the board.

(2) The statement of estimated revenues and expenditures shall be prepared in the form prescribed by the Minister and shall be submitted to the Minister and to each municipality in the school district or school region within thirty days of approval by the school board. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 75 .

76 (1) Unless an agreement made and approved pursuant to Section 27 of the former Act or made between a municipality and a regional school board pursuant to subsection (2) otherwise provides, each municipality shall pay to the school board

(a) the minimum municipal contribution that is required to be paid by each municipality to the school board; and

(b) the municipality's proportion of the amount that is requested by the school board to provide for the estimated expenditures of the board, after deducting

(ii) the sum of the minimum municipal contributions to be made by the participating municipalities pursuant to clause (a),

to the extent that the amount has been approved by the municipalities.

(2) Notwithstanding subsection (1), a regional school board may, by agreement with all the municipalities within the school region, vary the minimum municipal contribution of each of the municipalities within the school region, so long as the combined minimum municipal contributions made pursuant to the agreement equal the total minimum municipal contributions due to the regional school board pursuant to subsection (1).

(3) The amount required to be paid to a school board by a municipality pursuant to subsection (1) shall be paid in twelve equal monthly instalments in each fiscal year unless the school board and the municipality agree otherwise. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 76 .

77 Where a council of a municipality refuses or neglects to make provision for or to pay to the school board the amounts payable to the school board pursuant to Section 76, the board may borrow the amount, or so much thereof as is so refused or withheld, from any bank or person who will advance the same, and the amount so advanced, together with interest and all other borrowing and recovery expenses, may be recovered in an action against the municipality. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 77 .

78 (1) The Minister shall pay annually to each municipality the sums required by the municipality in that fiscal year to pay interest and repay the principal of sums borrowed by the municipality for the purposes of erecting, acquiring, purchasing, altering, adding to, improving, furnishing or equipping buildings for public schools or acquiring land therefor.

(2) The Minister may pay annually to each school board or its assignee an amount equal to the amount the board requires to pay the interest and repay the principal of sums borrowed by the school board pursuant to clause 87 (1)(d) and (e).

(3) The Minister shall pay annually to each school board, the area of which was an amalgamation area before its designation as a school district under the former Act,

(a) the sum required in that fiscal year to pay the interest and repay the principal of sums borrowed by the municipalities, for the purposes referred to in subsection (1), prior to the date of the designation of the area as an amalgamation area; and

(b) the amount required to pay the interest and repay the principal of sums borrowed by the amalgamated school board for the purposes set out in subsection (1). 1995-96, c. 1, s. 78 .

79 The Minister may withhold the payment of all or any part of financial assistance that would otherwise be payable to a school board or a municipality if the school board or the municipality

(a) fails to provide and administer any part of the public school program that is required to be provided under this Act and the regulations;

(b) fails or refuses to furnish such schedules and reports that the Minister may from time to time require concerning the administration and operation of public schools; or

80 (1) A school board shall create a special reserve fund into which shall be paid or credited such sums of money equal to any portion of any grant for capital purposes that has not been expended at the end of a fiscal year.

(2) Where an item of real or personal property with a value of twenty-five thousand dollars or more is no longer required by the school board for its purposes, the board may, with the consent of the Minister, sell the same and pay the proceeds into the special reserve fund.

(3) The proceeds from the sale or the recovery of insurance proceeds in respect of real or personal property pursuant to Section 88 shall be paid into the special reserve fund.

(4) The proceeds from the sale or the recovery of insurance proceeds in respect of real property or furniture and equipment in a school building, acquired from a former amalgamated school board when the district school board was established, shall be paid into the special reserve fund.

(5) The interest earned by the special reserve fund forms part of the fund.

(6) The special reserve fund shall be used only for capital purposes as approved by the Minister. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 80 .

81 (1) Subject to subsection (2) and the regulations, a school board may, for the sound and efficient managment [management] of any money of the school board, establish and adhere to investment policies, standards and procedures that a reasonable and prudent person would apply in respect of a portfolio of investments and loans to avoid undue risk of loss and to obtain a reasonable return.

(2) Nothing in this Section or the regulations permits a school board to invest money received under a trust in investments that are expressly forbidden by the instrument, if any, creating the trust. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 81 .

82 The funds of a school board shall be disbursed only by the board, and if the board determines the services provided by it or some of them shall be provided by others, payment for those services shall be made only on certification of accounts in a manner satisfactory to the school board. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 82 .

83 Every school board for each fiscal year shall prepare financial statements in the form prescribed by the Minister and shall submit the statements to the Minister and to each municipality in the school district or school region before July 1st of the ensuing fiscal year. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 83.

84 (1) Every school board shall annually appoint a person who is a licensed public accountant or a firm in which a member is a licensed public accountant to be the auditor of the school board.

(2) Where a school board does not appoint an auditor in accordance with subsection (1), the Minister may appoint one on behalf of the school board. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 84 .

85 (1) Within three months after the end of each fiscal year, the auditor of a school board shall examine and report on the financial statements of the board for the preceding fiscal year, including

(a) a statement of revenue and expenditure for the operating fund and any other fund of the board;

(b) a continuity of the surplus or deficit statement for the operating fund and any other fund of the board;

(ba) those matters that are required to be published pursuant to subsection 65(1);

(c) a statement of assets and liabilities for the operating fund and any other fund of the board as of the end of the fiscal year; and

(d) such other statement or information as may be required by law or by the school board.

(2) The auditor shall perform the annual examination in accordance with generally accepted auditing standards.

(3) The auditor shall attach to the financial statements a report which shall state

(a) whether the auditor has obtained all the information and explanations the auditor has required;

(b) whether the auditor's examination was made in accordance with generally accepted auditing standards, and accordingly included such tests and other procedures as the auditor considered necessary in the circumstances; and

(c) whether the statements present fairly the financial position of the school board as at the end of the fiscal year and the results of its operations for the preceding fiscal year in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles, as set out by the Minister in the financial management system approved by the regulations.

(4) Every auditor shall have free access at all times to the records, documents, books, accounts and vouchers of the school board and shall be entitled to receive from the officers and employees of the school board such information and explanations that in the opinion of the auditor are necessary for the performance of the auditor's duty, and it shall be the duty of the school board officials and employees to promptly provide such access and such information and explanations.

(5) Within three months after the end of each fiscal year, the auditor shall present to the school board at a meeting of the board

(a) the audited financial statements for the preceding fiscal year;

(b) the auditor's report on the financial statements; and

(c) any management letter or other written communications between the school board and the auditor detailing weaknesses in internal control, deficiencies in management-information systems, transactions lacking authority, defalcation, irregularity or other area requiring attention or improvement.

(6) Within four months after the end of each fiscal year, the school board shall provide to the Minister a copy of the material referred to in subsection (5), together with any other reports the Minister prescribes. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 85; 2002, c. 5, s. 13 .

85A A school board shall establish an audit committee of the board composed of those persons and with the terms of reference prescribed in the regulations. 2002, c. 5, s. 14 .

86 The Minister may, from time to time at the Minister's discretion, appoint an auditor to conduct an independent audit of the records, documents, books, vouchers or accounts of a school board or school and subsection 85(4) applies mutatis mutandis. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 86 .

87 (1) For the purpose of establishing, maintaining and operating public schools, a school board may

(a) acquire, hold, improve and maintain any real or personal property for such consideration and on such conditions as the Minister may deem proper;

(b) lease, sell or convey any real or personal property for such consideration and on such conditions as the Minister may deem proper;

(c) improve, renovate, alter, add to, repair, extend, provide service, furnish and equip buildings for public school purposes on such terms and conditions as the Minister may deem proper;

(d) subject to the Municipal Finance Corporation Act and with the approval of the Minister, borrow money by the issue of bonds, debentures, promissory notes or other securities to evidence such borrowing on such terms and conditions as are approved by the Minister;

(e) with the approval of the Minister postpone a borrowing pursuant to clause (d) and borrow by way of a temporary loan from a chartered bank, trust company or other financial institution in the Province by the execution of promissory notes or other instruments used in connection with temporary borrowings;

(f) with the approval of the Minister, borrow money from the Maintenance Stabilization Trust Fund;

(g) with the approval of the Minister, borrow up to one per cent of the operating expenditure budget for the current fiscal year to meet current operating expenditures.

(2) The amount borrowed pursuant to clause (1)(g) shall be repaid in full by the end of the fiscal year in which the amount was borrowed.

(3) The Minister may, on behalf of Her Majesty in right of the Province, guarantee the repayment of principal and payment of interest on any borrowings made pursuant to subsection (1) on such terms and conditions as the Governor in Council determines.

(4) A school board shall pay the interest and repay the principal in respect of sums borrowed by the board pursuant to this Section. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 87 .

88 (1) Where the Minister has received a report pursuant to the regulations and the Minister is satisfied that it is necessary to acquire property or to construct, purchase, alter, add to, improve, furnish or equip buildings or other works for public school purposes, the Minister may, with the approval of the Governor in Council,

(a) acquire property for such consideration and on such conditions as the Minister may deem proper;

(b) construct, alter or add to buildings or other works for school purposes; or

and all expenditures for such purposes shall be paid by the Province.

(2) Upon completion of a project, the Minister, with the approval of the Governor in Council, may convey title to such property to the school board, or to the municipality if title was acquired from the municipality for the purpose of the project, for such consideration and on such conditions as the Minister may deem proper.

(3) Where alterations, additions or improvements are made to public school property owned by a municipality, the municipality holds such property upon trust that the school board is entitled to receive

(a) in the event of the sale of such property; or

(b) in the event of partial or complete destruction of the property,

the proportion of the proceeds from the sale, or any insurance recovery, less any amount required to be paid to the Province pursuant to subsection (5), that the value of alterations, additions or improvements made by or on behalf of the school board is to the appraised value of the whole property, and such proportion shall be paid into the special reserve fund established pursuant to Section 80.

(4) Notwithstanding subsection (3), where a building owned by a municipality or school board and used for public school purposes is partially or completely destroyed and the school board requires that the building be repaired or replaced, the school board shall receive the proceeds from any insurance recovery and shall pay the proceeds into the special reserve fund established pursuant to Section 80.

(5) Where a municipality receives the proceeds from an insurance recovery with respect to a building owned by the municipality and used for school purposes and there is debt owed on the school property for which the Province is responsible, the municipality shall pay the amount of the outstanding debt to the Province out of the insurance recovery. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 88.

89 (1) A school board may, with the approval of the Minister, make a by-law governing the permanent closure of a public school within its jurisdiction.

(2) A by-law made pursuant to subsection (1) shall be consistent with the regulations made by the Minister pursuant to this Act respecting the permanent closure of public schools.

(3) Upon identification, in accordance with the regulations made by the Minister, of a public school to be considered for permanent closing, the school board may permanently close the school within the school district in accordance with a by-law made pursuant to subsection (1) or, where there is no such by-law, in accordance with the regulations made by the Minister pursuant to this Act respecting the permanent closure of public schools. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 89 .

90 (1) A school board may

(a) declare any building used for public school purposes or any part of a building used for public school purposes, or the appurtenances or grounds thereof, to be unfit for public school purposes;

(b) enter into and carry out a lease or agreement for the renting of premises for public school purposes.

(2) No lease or agreement shall be entered into pursuant to clause (1)(b) that

(a) does not place the rental premises completely under the control of the school board; or

(b) contains any undertaking or agreement that abridges or modifies any power or duty of the school board. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 90 .

91 When a school board makes a declaration that a school house or building used for public school purposes or a part of a school house or such a building or the appurtenances or grounds thereof are unfit for public school purposes, the board shall notify the municipality in which the school house or building is located and the declaration shall, unless otherwise provided by the board, take effect at the commencement of the next academic school year, and the school house or building or part thereof or grounds or appurtenances shall not thereafter be used for school purposes without the approval of the school board. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 91 .

92 (1) Buildings owned by municipalities and used for school purposes are under the exclusive control and management of school boards and school boards are responsible for providing adequate maintenance and repairs and shall insure the buildings in amounts agreed upon by the municipalities and the school boards.

(2) The school boards shall notify the municipalities when land and buildings owned by the municipalities are no longer required for the purposes of the school boards. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 92.

93 (1) Subject to subsection (2), where land and buildings, that have vested in a district school board pursuant to the former Act, are declared surplus by the district school board or a successor school board and the land and buildings were owned by a municipality prior to the establishment of the amalgamated school board pursuant to the former Act, the municipality shall have the option of having the surplus land and buildings reconveyed to it, subject only to any lien, mortgage or charge in respect of the unmatured debt that exists at the time the land and buildings are declared surplus.

(2) Where land and buildings vested in the Conseil acadien are declared surplus by the Conseil acadien and the lands and buildings were owned by another school board prior to the vesting of the land and building in the Conseil acadien, that school board or a successor school board shall have the option of having the surplus land and buildings conveyed to it, subject only to any lien, mortgage or charge in respect of the unmatured debt that exists at the time the land and buildings are declared surplus. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 93.

SCHOOL TRUSTEES

94 (1) For the purpose of this Act, the Province is divided into school sections.

(2) The boundaries of school sections existing immediately before the coming into force of this Act are continued until altered under this Act.

(3) The boundaries of a school section may be proved in any court by a certificate of the secretary of the school board of the school district or school region in which the section is situated without proof of the handwriting or appointment of the secretary. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 94 .

95 (1) Subject to this Act, there may be in each school section a board of trustees consisting of such number of persons, not fewer than three, as the school board determines, who shall be known as "The Trustees of (here insert name of Section and number, if any) in the (here insert name of school district)" to provide educational programs for some or all of the students attending a public school in the school section.

(2) Subsection (1) does not apply where there is only one school section in a school district when this Act comes into force.

(3) Notwithstanding subsection (1), a district school board or regional school board may determine, subject to the approval of the Minister, that there shall be a board of trustees for an area consisting of two or more school sections in which one or more public schools are located and that the trustees shall be known as "The Trustees of (here insert name and number, if any) in the (here insert name of school district)", and where such a combination of school sections is made it shall be deemed to be a school section for the purpose of this Act.

(4) Each trustee holds office for a term of three years and may be re-elected.

(5) The board of trustees shall

(a) communicate to the school board the opinion and recommendations of the trustees and other members of the public respecting the conduct of the school program in the school section;

(b) visit the public schools of the school section not less than twice in each year;

(c) make recommendations to the school board respecting use of a public school building for purposes other than regular school purposes, so long as that use does not interfere with the proper conduct of schools;

(d) provide such assistance and perform other functions as required by this Act or requested by the school board.

(6) Upon the establishment of a school advisory council for a public school, no board of trustees has any jurisdiction or responsibility with respect to that school and, if therefore the board of trustees has no jurisdiction or responsibility with respect to any public school, the board of trustees is dissolved and no further school meetings shall be held pursuant to Section 96 or 97. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 95 .

96 (1) In this Section and Sections 97 to 119, "resident" means a resident who is eighteen years of age or more.

(2) A meeting of residents of the school section may be held annually in every school section. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 96.

97 (1) An annual school meeting of every school section may be held on a date determined by the trustees of the school section.

(2) An annual school meeting may be held in a public school building or other suitable place in the section designated by the trustees.

(3) At a school meeting three residents of the school section constitute a quorum.

(4) Notice of every school meeting shall state the purpose or purposes of the meeting and shall be given by the trustees

(a) by posting the notice in not fewer than three public places in the section for not fewer than five days before the day fixed for the meeting; or

(b) by one advertisement not less than five days prior to the date of the meeting in a newspaper having general circulation in the area.

(5) When an annual school meeting has been held in the section on the date determined by the trustees pursuant to subsection (1), no election conducted or business transacted thereat shall be held to be invalid because of an irregularity or failure in the posting or giving of notices required by subsection (4) if there has been substantial compliance with that subsection.

(6) Notwithstanding Section 95, if there are no trustees in a section, the school board shall, on the written request of at least seven residents of the section, or in case there are fewer than fourteen residents in the section, on the written request of the majority of the residents, call a special meeting in the manner provided in this Section for

(a) the purpose of deciding whether to have trustees and, if it is decided to have them, electing trustees; and

(b) the consideration of any subject deemed of importance to the educational interests of the section.

(7) The term of office of trustees elected pursuant to subsection (6) is three years. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 97.

98 The business of an annual school meeting shall be to

(a) receive and consider reports submitted by the trustees;

(b) consider any subject deemed of importance to the educational interests of the section;

(d) decide whether there is a need for trustees; and

(e) if there is a need for trustees, elect such trustees at the first annual meeting of residents of the section after July 1, 1982, and at three year intervals thereafter. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 98 .

99 The trustees of a school section at any time may, and when requested by a majority of the residents of the section shall, call a special school meeting for the consideration of matters deemed of importance to the educational interests of the section. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 99 .

100 (1) The residents of the school section present at any school meeting shall elect a chair from among the residents to preside over the meeting and a secretary to record its proceedings.

(2) The chair shall decide all questions of order and shall take the votes of the residents.

(3) The chair may vote in the case of the election of trustees, but the chair shall not vote on other questions except in the case of a tie, when the chair has the casting vote. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 100.

101 (1) If a person who offers to vote at a school meeting is challenged as not qualified, the chair presiding at the meeting shall require the person so offering to make the following declaration: "I do declare and affirm that I reside in this school section".

(2) Every person who is so challenged and makes that declaration may vote on all questions proposed at the meeting, but if that person refuses to make the declaration that person may not vote.

(3) Every person who wilfully makes a false declaration of that person's right to vote is liable to a penalty of not more than two hundred dollars and, in default of payment, to imprisonment for not more than sixty days. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 101 .

102 (1) The trustees of a school section may be elected at an annual school meeting.

(2) The trustees shall be elected from among the residents of the section.

(3) No person is qualified to be elected or to hold office as a trustee who

(a) is a member of the school board, a regional education officer or a teacher employed in the section;

(b) is a person otherwise employed by the school board or by the trustees of the school section or district in respect of the section or district;

(d) has been continuously absent from the section for more than six months;

(e) is insolvent; or

(f) is disabled from transacting business. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 102.

103 A trustee who becomes disqualified under Section 102 shall vacate the office. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 103.

104 No irregularity in the mode of electing a trustee invalidates the election unless before the adjournment of the meeting formal objection is taken to the election by a person who is entitled to vote. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 104 .

105 (1) Where it has been decided to have trustees and at an annual school meeting three trustees are not elected or an insufficient number of trustees is elected or for any other reason a vacancy exists, the district school board shall appoint a trustee or trustees to fill the vacancies, and persons so appointed shall hold office in all respects as if they had been elected at the annual meeting.

(2) The trustees so appointed may, in the manner provided for calling an annual meeting, call a meeting of the residents of the section who are entitled to attend an annual meeting, and at the meeting so called those persons may transact any business, except the election of trustees, that may be transacted at an annual meeting. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 105.

106 (1) The trustees, at their first meeting after the annual school meeting, shall appoint a secretary and furnish the secretary with suitable books for keeping records of the doings of the trustees and the business of the section.

(2) The secretary holds office until the secretary resigns or until the secretary's successor is appointed. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 106 .

107 The secretary under the direction and supervision of a majority of the trustees shall

(a) keep, in proper books, accounts and records of the affairs and meetings of trustees and minutes of school meetings;

(b) generally transact any business directed by resolution of the trustees. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 107 .

108 Not later than three days before the annual school meeting, the secretary shall prepare and submit to the trustees a statement of the finances of the section showing in detail

(a) the actual receipts and disbursements of the section in the preceding fiscal year;

(b) a forecast of anticipated receipts and disbursements during the current fiscal year; and

109 When a school board makes an alteration in the boundaries of a section, subdivides a section, or unites two or more sections, it may, from time to time, make such order or orders as it deems proper respecting the continuance and constitution of the board or boards of school trustees, and respecting the rights, property and liabilities of the sections affected by the alteration, subdivision or union, and generally may order and direct all things that become necessary to give effect to the alteration, subdivision or union. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 109.

110 No alteration, subdivision, union or apportionment of a school section or part of a section shall take effect until the beginning of the next academic school year, but, when it is necessary for the purpose of making preparations for that school year, meetings of residents of the section and of trustees may be held and business of the section conducted before the beginning of the academic school year. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 110.

General responsibilities and power of school boards

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64 (1) A school board is accountable to the Minister and responsible for the control and management of the public schools within its jurisdiction in accordance with this Act and the regulations.

(2) A school board shall, in accordance with this Act and the regulations,

(a) make provision for the education and instruction of all students enrolled in its schools and programs;

(b) ensure that its schools adhere to the provincial program of studies;

(d) develop and implement educational programs for students with special needs within regular instructional settings with their peers in age, in accordance with the regulations and the Minister's policies and guidelines;

(e) develop short and long term plans for the provision of barrier-free access to and within educational facilities;

(f) promote its schools as safe, quality learning environments and as community resources;

(g) subject to the regulations, provide and pay for the conveyance of students to and from school;

(h) pay for the boarding of students in accordance with the regulations;

(i) pay the tuition of students educated in public schools operated by other boards or authorities in accordance with the regulations;

(j) provide regional services to assist public schools;

(k) subject to any applicable collective agreement in effect when this Act comes into force, establish and follow a fair-hiring policy;

(l) hire and pay the superintendent, principals, teachers and other staff;

(m) invite the Department of Education and Culture to name a representative to participate in the process of hiring the superintendent and to participate in the annual evaluation of the superintendent;

(n) identify staff-development needs;

(o) establish policies respecting the communication by teachers to students and parents of learning expectations and progress;

(p) establish an attendance committee to monitor attendance and carry out school board policies in respect of the absenteeism of students in the schools;

(q) take remedial steps, in accordance with school board policy, in respect of those students who have been reported to the school board by a principal as being habitually absent from the school without acceptable excuse;

(r) establish a regional student-discipline policy consistent with the Provincial discipline policy established by the Minister;

(s) develop policies and implement programs consistent with the Minister's policies and guidelines respecting students who have been suspended for more than five days or expelled from school;

(t) establish a policy for the protection of students and employees from harassment and abuse;

(u) develop other regional policies, consistent with any policies established by the Minister, that reflect the board's responsibilities, including policies with respect to staffing, student-support services, programs, school-based fund-raising and transportation;

(v) develop regional strategic and business plans;

(w) enter into an agreement, with a school advisory council and the Minister, determining the composition and responsibilities of the school advisory council;

(x) encourage the development of school advisory councils within its school district or school region;

(y) provide leadership training for members of school advisory councils;

(z) approve school-improvement plans and the annual report submitted by the school advisory council;

(aa) consult with school advisory councils with respect to matters assigned to school advisory councils pursuant to this Act;

(ab) provide for the effective and efficient management of the financial affairs of the board;

(ac) supervise capital expenditures;

(ad) provide and pay for adequate equipment and furnishings for public schools and the maintenance and operation of equipment, furnishings and school buildings;

(ae) manage, maintain, repair and keep safe all real and personal property owned, leased or used by the board;

(af) insure, in amounts agreed upon by the Minister, all buildings and personal property owned by the school board;

(ag) pay its own administration costs including, without limiting the generality of the foregoing, the provision of office space, supplies and equipment, payments to auditors and board members, and the enforcement of this Act;

(ah) provide the sums required to pay the cost of arbitration boards appointed pursuant to the provisions of the Teachers' Collective Bargaining Act and to implement the awards of such boards;

(ai) designate persons to execute agreements on behalf of the school board;

(aj) establish a public tendering and procurement policy, consistent with the Atlantic Provinces Procurement Agreement or similar or successor agreement;

(ak) with the approval of the Minister, enter into agreements with municipalities for the purpose of carrying out this Act and the regulations;

(al) co-operate with other school boards and Government departments and agencies to ensure the effective and efficient carrying out of this Act and the regulations;

(ala) establish a school board conflict of interest policy for school board staff consistent with the Provincial conflict of interest policy for school board staff established by the Minister in the regulations;

(am) submit to the Minister an annual report containing such information as is required by the Minister; and

(an) perform such other duties requested by or delegated to it by the Minister or required to carry out its responsibilities under this Act.

(3) A school board may

(a) provide such courses as are approved by the Minister;

(b) provide such additional services and benefits as the school board may consider desirable;

(d) permit persons to offer religious studies in its schools in accordance with the policies of the school board.

(3A) An employment or personal-services contract entered into between a school board and senior staff, as defined in the regulations, of the school board has no effect until approved by the Minister.

(3B) A school board shall implement the administrative structure for senior staff, as defined in the regulations, of the school board in accordance with the administrative structure prescribed by the Minister in the regulations.

(3C) A school board shall establish a compensation framework for senior staff, as defined in the regulations, of the school board in accordance with the compensation framework established by the Minister in the regulations.

(4) Notwithstanding subsections (2) and (3), in any fiscal year a school board shall not incur or make expenditures that will result in the total of the amounts of expenditures being in excess of the total of the amounts of the school board's revenue from all sources in that fiscal year.

(5) A school board designated in the regulations shall share services and related resources as defined in the regulations with one or more school boards, at such time, in the manner and on the terms and conditions as prescribed in the regulations.

(6) A school board, in carrying out its responsibilities under this Act, shall meet education program, service and performance standards established by the Minister. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 64; 2002, c. 5, s. 9; 2004, c. 3, s. 17.

64A A school board shall not engage in or carry out any commercial activity, including lending, without the approval of the Governor in Council. 2002, c. 5, s. 10.

64B For greater certainty, a school board shall not engage in or carry out any activity that is outside the authority, powers, duties and responsibilities of the school board pursuant to this Act and the regulations. 2002, c. 5, s. 10 .

65 (1) Within three months after the end of each fiscal year, commencing with the 2001-02 fiscal year, a school board shall publish, in the manner and form prescribed by the regulations, a report of all payments, including salaries and expenses, made to and all benefits conferred on members and employees of the school board during the fiscal year of the school board ending on March 31st in that year.

(2) Within four months after the end of each fiscal year, a school board shall file with the Minister a copy of the report referred to in subsection (1).

(3) A copy of the report required by subsection (1) shall be available at the offices of a school board for inspection and may be purchased at cost by any person. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 65; 2002, c. 5, s. 11 .

66 A school board may enter into and carry out an agreement or agreements with any other school board for the education of some or all of the students residing in the area within its jurisdiction, for the transportation of students to school, for maintenance of public schools, for obtaining supplies, for sharing facilities and services and respecting any other services required by the school board. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 66 .

67 With the approval of the Minister, a school board may make by-laws for the conduct and operation of a public school and the exercise of the powers of the school board. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 67 .

68 (1) In carrying out its responsibilities and in exercising its authority under this Act, a school board shall comply with the policies of the Department of Education and Culture and the directives of the Minister issued in accordance with this Act.

(2) Where, in the opinion of the Minister,

(a) the health, safety or educational welfare of the students of a school are endangered or the resources of a school board are not being used in a responsible manner;

(aa) a school board has failed to meet the standards referred to in subsection 64(6); or

(b) the school board has failed to comply with a request of the Minister to take corrective action,

the Minister may appoint a person who shall carry out such responsibilities and exercise such authority of the school board as the Minister determines and in such manner as the Minister determines and, to the extent the Minister determines, the school board ceases to have such responsibilities or authority. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 68; 2002, c. 5, s. 12; 2004, c. 3, s. 18 .

69 (1) A school board may permit volunteers to assist in its schools in accordance with board policy.

(2) Where a school board permits volunteers to assist in its schools, it shall establish policies respecting the role of the volunteers. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 69 .

70 (1) No person shall, in or upon any public school premises or school bus and in the presence of any student attending that school, use profane, threatening, abusive or improper language towards the teacher, other staff of the school board or bus driver, or speak or act in such a way as to impair the maintenance of discipline by the teacher in the school or the bus driver on the school bus.

(2) No person shall wilfully interrupt or disturb the proceedings of a school meeting or a public school by acting in a disorderly manner or by making a noise either within the place where the meeting is held or the school is conducted or so near thereto as to interfere with the proceedings of the meeting or the conduct of the school.

(3) Every person who contravenes this Section is guilty of an offence and liable on summary conviction to a fine of not more than two thousand dollars or to imprisonment for six months, or to both. 1995-96, c. 1, s. 70 .

EDUCATION SERIES

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